{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,15]],"date-time":"2026-08-15T10:56:47Z","timestamp":1786791407903,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]],"date-time":"2025-08-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756166400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), with cooperative funding from 23 other federal agencies and foundations","award":["U01 AG071448 (Hummer)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U01 AG071448 (Hummer)"]}]},{"name":"Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), with cooperative funding from 23 other federal agencies and foundations","award":["U01 AG071448 (Hummer)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U01 AG071448 (Hummer)"]}]},{"name":"Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), with cooperative funding from 23 other federal agencies and foundations","award":["U01AG071450 (Aiello and Hummer)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U01AG071450 (Aiello and Hummer)"]}]},{"name":"University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill","award":["U01 AG071448 (Hummer)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U01 AG071448 (Hummer)"]}]},{"name":"University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill","award":["U01 AG071448 (Hummer)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U01 AG071448 (Hummer)"]}]},{"name":"University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill","award":["U01AG071450 (Aiello and Hummer)"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U01AG071450 (Aiello and Hummer)"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Discrimination has been linked to greater stress and higher levels of depressive symptoms. However, there has been no research to date that has examined how life course inequality due to everyday discrimination is associated with mental health outcomes later in life. Using data from Waves I, IV, and V of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health) from 1994 to 2018, we examined how everyday discrimination in young adulthood (Wave IV) was associated with depressive symptoms at early midlife (Wave V). We also examined how parent\u2013child relationships in young adulthood (maternal and paternal closeness; satisfaction of communication with mothers and fathers) moderated this association. We analyzed two sub samples: a mother sample (n = 9390) and a father sample (n = 8229). Results from both showed that everyday discrimination in young adulthood was significantly associated with depressive symptoms at early midlife, and parent\u2013child relationships served as significant protective factors against depression. Mental health policy and intervention efforts should address how discrimination experienced in young adulthood can have enduring adverse effects on mental health into early midlife and invest in strategies that promote supportive parent\u2013child relationships as protective resources.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph22091323","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]],"date-time":"2025-08-26T14:18:49Z","timestamp":1756217929000},"page":"1323","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Everyday Discrimination in Young Adulthood and Depressive Symptoms at Early Midlife: The Moderating Role of Parent\u2013Child Relationships"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2206-6871","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Binoli","family":"Herath","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, 425 N. 5th Street, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0796-4940","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xing","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Health Solutions, Arizona State University, 425 N. 5th Street, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.2190\/M11W-VWXE-KQM9-G97Q","article-title":"Embodying inequality: A review of concepts, measures, and methods for studying health consequences of discrimination","volume":"29","author":"Krieger","year":"1999","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Serv."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"488","DOI":"10.2307\/1519795","article-title":"Status variations in stress exposure: Implications for the interpretation of research on race, socioeconomic status, and gender","volume":"44","author":"Turner","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Health Soc. Behav."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.61.5.481","article-title":"Stress burden and the lifetime incidence of psychiatric disorder in young adults: Racial and ethnic contrasts","volume":"61","author":"Turner","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1177\/0095798414567757","article-title":"Racial Discrimination, John Henryism, and Depression Among African Americans","volume":"42","author":"Hudson","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Black Psychol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1002\/gps.4454","article-title":"Discrimination and psychiatric disorders among older African Americans","volume":"32","author":"Mouzon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1126\/science.847460","article-title":"The need for a new medical model: A challenge for biomedicine","volume":"196","author":"Engel","year":"1977","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1037\/a0016059","article-title":"Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review","volume":"135","author":"Pascoe","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.93.2.200","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings from community studies","volume":"93","author":"Williams","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1170","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2006.00927.x","article-title":"Perceived discrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: A five-year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects","volume":"77","author":"Brody","year":"2006","journal-title":"Child. Dev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"517","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.86.4.517","article-title":"Perceived discrimination and substance use in African american parents and their children: A panel study","volume":"86","author":"Gibbons","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Pers. Soc. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"127","article-title":"Are benefits conferred with greater socioeconomic position undermined by racial discrimination among African American men?","volume":"9","author":"Hudson","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Men\u2019s Health"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.2307\/2676349","article-title":"the prevalence, distribution, and mental health correlates of perceived discrimination in the United States","volume":"40","author":"Kessler","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Health Soc. Behav."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"DuBOIS, W.E.B. (1967). The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study, Schocken Books."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S15","DOI":"10.1177\/0022146510383838","article-title":"Understanding racial-ethnic disparities in health: Sociological contributions","volume":"51","author":"Williams","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Health Soc. Behav."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1215\/00703370-10740718","article-title":"Racialized Health Inequities: Quantifying Socioeconomic and Stress Pathways Using Moderated Mediation","volume":"60","author":"Brown","year":"2023","journal-title":"Demography"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-soc-073014-112305","article-title":"Is Racism a Fundamental Cause of Inequalities in Health?","volume":"41","author":"Phelan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Sociol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1177\/135910539700200305","article-title":"Racial Differences in Physical and Mental Health: Socio-economic Status, Stress and Discrimination","volume":"2","author":"Williams","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Health Psychol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Essed, P. (1991). Understanding Everyday Racism: An Interdisciplinary Theory, vol. 2, SAGE Publications.","DOI":"10.4135\/9781483345239"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114609","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.114609","article-title":"What do we measure when we measure perceptions of everyday discrimination?","volume":"292","author":"Harnois","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-clinpsy-032814-112728","article-title":"Self-Reported experiences of discrimination and health: Scientific advances, ongoing controversies, and emerging issues","volume":"11","author":"Lewis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1007\/s10865-008-9185-0","article-title":"Discrimination and racial disparities in health: Evidence and needed research","volume":"32","author":"Williams","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Behav. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2006.091827","article-title":"A Nationwide Study of Discrimination and Chronic Health Conditions Among Asian Americans","volume":"97","author":"Gee","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.2307\/1519813","article-title":"Does perceived discrimination affect health? Longitudinal relationships between work discrimination and women\u2019s physical and emotional health","volume":"44","author":"Pavalko","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Health Soc. Behav."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1576","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2005.03.006","article-title":"Experiences of discrimination: Validity and reliability of a self-report measure for population health research on racism and health","volume":"61","author":"Krieger","year":"2005","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327558ijbm1102_4","article-title":"Validation of the Detroit Area Study Discrimination Scale in a community sample of older African American adults: The Pittsburgh healthy heart project","volume":"11","author":"Taylor","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Behav. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1007\/s10597-006-9052-9","article-title":"An examination of the african american experience of everyday discrimination and symptoms of psychological distress","volume":"42","author":"Banks","year":"2006","journal-title":"Community Ment. Health J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10865-008-9190-3","article-title":"Race, racism and health: Disparities, mechanisms, and interventions","volume":"32","author":"Brondolo","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Behav. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2011.12.029","article-title":"Perceived discrimination and depression among new migrants to Hong Kong: The moderating role of social support and neighborhood collective efficacy","volume":"138","author":"Chou","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1177\/0164027511426151","article-title":"A Longitudinal Study of Social Status, Perceived Discrimination, and Physical and Emotional Health Among Older Adults","volume":"34","author":"Luo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Res. Aging"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1190","DOI":"10.1037\/a0034703","article-title":"Longitudinal associations between experienced racial discrimination and depressive symptoms in African American adolescents","volume":"50","author":"English","year":"2014","journal-title":"Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1265","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2005.064543","article-title":"Discrimination, symptoms of depression, and self-rated health among african american women in detroit: Results from a longitudinal analysis","volume":"96","author":"Schulz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1269","DOI":"10.1016\/S0277-9536(00)00230-6","article-title":"Does childhood health affect chronic morbidity in later life?","volume":"52","author":"Blackwell","year":"2001","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1177\/000312249906400212","article-title":"Utility of Health data from Social Surveys: Is There a Gold Standard for Measuring Morbidity?","volume":"64","author":"Ferraro","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. Sociol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1177\/000312240206700306","article-title":"Occupational Stratification across the Life Course: Evidence from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study","volume":"67","author":"Warren","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. Sociol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1093\/geront\/36.2.230","article-title":"The Precious and the Precocious: Understanding Cumulative Disadvantage and Cumulative Advantage Over the Life Course","volume":"36","year":"1996","journal-title":"Gerontologist"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.2307\/2137234","article-title":"Education, age, and the cumulative advantage in health","volume":"37","author":"Ross","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Health Soc. Behav."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S327","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/58.6.S327","article-title":"Cumulative advantage\/disadvantage and the life course: Cross-fertilizing age and social science theory","volume":"58","author":"Dannefer","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. Ser. B"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1177\/0164027507311151","article-title":"Cumulative Disadvantage and Black-White Disparities in Life-Course Health Trajectories","volume":"30","author":"Shuey","year":"2008","journal-title":"Res. Aging"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2011.300544","article-title":"Methods for the scientific study of discrimination and health: An ecosocial approach","volume":"102","author":"Krieger","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S130","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/60.Special_Issue_2.S130","article-title":"Conceptualizing and Identifying Cumulative Adversity and Protective Resources: Implications for Understanding Health Inequalities","volume":"60","author":"Hatch","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. Ser. B"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1186\/s41235-021-00349-3","article-title":"Systemic racism: Individuals and interactions, institutions and society","volume":"6","author":"Banaji","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cogn. Res. Princ. Implic."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2218","DOI":"10.1177\/1359105315572456","article-title":"Everyday discrimination and physical health: Exploring mental health processes","volume":"21","author":"Earnshaw","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Health Psychol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"465","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.07.017","article-title":"Discrimination and systemic inflammation: A critical review and synthesis","volume":"89","author":"Cuevas","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1177\/014662167700100306","article-title":"The CES-D Scale: A Self-Report Depression Scale for Research in the General Population","volume":"1","author":"Radloff","year":"1977","journal-title":"Appl. Psychol. Meas."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-022-02178-4","article-title":"The effects of social isolation stress and discrimination on mental health","volume":"12","author":"Brandt","year":"2022","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2793","DOI":"10.1007\/s11136-020-02525-2","article-title":"Association between racial discrimination and health-related quality of life and the impact of social relationships","volume":"29","author":"Bergeron","year":"2020","journal-title":"Qual. Life Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T.B., Layton, J.B., and Brayne, C. (2010). Social relationships and mortality risk: A meta-analytic review. PLOS Med., 7.","DOI":"10.4016\/19865.01"},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"458","article-title":"Social ties and mental health","volume":"78","author":"Kawachi","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Hered."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1136\/heartjnl-2015-308790","article-title":"Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for coronary heart disease and stroke: Systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal observational studies","volume":"102","author":"Valtorta","year":"2016","journal-title":"Heart"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"953","DOI":"10.1177\/10783903241243092","article-title":"Social Support Is Protective Against the Effects of Discrimination on Parental Mental Health Outcomes","volume":"30","author":"Alvarez","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Am. Psychiatr. Nurses Assoc."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"894","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-011-0814-9","article-title":"Longitudinal study of depressive symptoms and social support in adolescent mothers","volume":"16","author":"Brown","year":"2011","journal-title":"Matern. Child. Health J."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jagp.2014.04.008","article-title":"Social support from church and family members and depressive symptoms among older african americans","volume":"23","author":"Chatters","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Geriatr. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1002\/jcop.21947","article-title":"church and family support networks and depressive symptoms among african americans: Findings from the national survey of american life","volume":"46","author":"Chatters","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Community Psychol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jad.2019.04.013","article-title":"Social support from friends and depression among African Americans: The moderating influence of education","volume":"253","author":"Nguyen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.98.2.310","article-title":"Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis","volume":"98","author":"Cohen","year":"1985","journal-title":"Psychol. Bull."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1007\/s10903-011-9548-4","article-title":"Discrimination, family relationships, and major depression among Asian Americans","volume":"14","author":"Chae","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Immigr. Minor. Health"},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"1","article-title":"Family Relationships and Well-Being","volume":"1","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Innov. Aging"},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"361","article-title":"Emotional support, negative interaction and major depressive disorder among African Americans and Caribbean Blacks: Findings from the National Survey of American Life","volume":"47","author":"Lincoln","year":"2012","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1097\/NMD.0000000000000249","article-title":"Extended Family and Friendship Support Networks Are Both Protective and Risk Factors for Major Depressive Disorder and Depressive Symptoms Among African-Americans and Black Caribbeans","volume":"203","author":"Taylor","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Nerv. Ment. Dis."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1007\/s10902-015-9626-8","article-title":"Social Support from Family and Friends and Subjective Well-Being of Older African Americans","volume":"17","author":"Nguyen","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Happiness Stud."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2021053509L","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.2021-053509L","article-title":"The Family is the Patient: Promoting Early Childhood Mental Health in Pediatric Care","volume":"149","author":"Buka","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pediatrics"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e161","DOI":"10.1192\/bjo.2023.545","article-title":"The impact of family interventions on communication in the context of anxiety and depression in those aged 14\u201324 years: Systematic review of randomised control trials","volume":"9","author":"Lloyd","year":"2023","journal-title":"BJPsych Open"},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Bowlby, M. (1973). Separation: Anxiety and Anger: Attachment and Loss: Volume 1. Attachment, Basic Books."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1159\/000273025","article-title":"Individuation in Family Relationships: A Perspective on Individual Differences in the Development of Identity and Role-Taking Skill in Adolescence","volume":"29","author":"Grotevant","year":"1986","journal-title":"Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.2307\/1127295","article-title":"Socialization practices associated with dimensions of competence in preschool boys and girls","volume":"38","author":"Baumrind","year":"1967","journal-title":"Child. Dev."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1097\/00006842-197609000-00003","article-title":"Social support as a moderator of life stress","volume":"38","author":"Cobb","year":"1976","journal-title":"Psychosom. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01536980","article-title":"Temperament and social support in adolescence: Interrelations with depressive symptoms and delinquent behaviors","volume":"21","author":"Windle","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Youth Adolesc."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"205","article-title":"Mother\u2013Child Relationships and Depressive Symptoms in the Transition to Adulthood: An Examination of Ra-cial and Ethnic Differences\u2019","volume":"15","author":"Blair","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transitions into Parenthood: Examining the Complexities of Childrearing"},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"88","article-title":"Parent-Child Relationships and Mental Health in the Transition to Adulthood by Race and Ethnicity","volume":"2","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr. J. Divers. Scholarsh. Soc. Change"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.74.1.55","article-title":"A social-interactional model of the development of depressive symptoms in adolescence","volume":"74","author":"Allen","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Consult. Clin. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1007\/s10964-005-9021-6","article-title":"Depressive Symptoms, Stress, and Support: Gendered Trajectories From Adolescence to Young Adulthood","volume":"35","author":"Meadows","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Youth Adolesc."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"511","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1985.01790280093010","article-title":"Psychosocial functioning in prepubertal major depressive disorders. II. Interpersonal relationships after sustained recovery from affective episode","volume":"42","author":"Lukens","year":"1985","journal-title":"Arch. Gen. Psychiatry."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"670","DOI":"10.2307\/353953","article-title":"From Adolescent to Young Adult: A Prospective Study of Parent-Child Relations during the Transition to Adulthood","volume":"59","author":"Aquilino","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Marriage Fam."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., and Grant, A. (2023). Parent\u2013Child Relationships from Adolescence to Adulthood: An Examination of Children\u2019s and Parent\u2019s Reports of Intergenerational Solidarity by Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Socioeconomic Status from 1994\u20132018 in the United States. Soc. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/socsci12050266"},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Rossi, A.S., and Rossi, P.H. (1990). Of Human Bonding: Parent-Child Relations Across the Life Course, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.1177\/019251395016005003","article-title":"Parent-Child Relationships During the Transition to Adulthood","volume":"16","author":"Thornton","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Fam. Issues"},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Pillemer, K.A., and Mccartney, K. (1991). Parent-Child Relations Throughout Life, L. Erlbaum Associates, Inc."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1093\/ije\/dyz115","article-title":"Cohort Profile: The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health)","volume":"48","author":"Harris","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Harris, K.M. (2025, March 16). The Add Health Study: Design and Accomplishments. Available online: https:\/\/addhealth.cpc.unc.edu\/wp-content\/uploads\/docs\/user_guides\/DesignPaperWave_I-IV.pdf."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"804","DOI":"10.1177\/00491241211067512","article-title":"The Potential for Using a Shortened Version of the Everyday Discrimination Scale in Population Research with Young Adults: A Construct Validation Investigation","volume":"53","author":"Benner","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sociol. Methods Res."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kong, J., Zhang, X., and Kim, I. (2025). Adverse Childhood Experiences and Intergenerational Relationships in Young Adulthood: Variation Across Gender, Race and Ethnicity. J. Interpers. Violence.","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605251336787"},{"key":"ref_82","unstructured":"Chen, P., and Harris, K.M. (2025, March 16). \u2018Guidelines for Analyzing Add Health Data\u2019, Carolina Digital Repository. Available online: https:\/\/cdr.lib.unc.edu\/concern\/articles\/k0698990v?locale=en."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1747-4469.2006.00036.x","article-title":"A Social Psychological Perspective on Perceiving and Reporting Discrimination","volume":"31","author":"Kaiser","year":"2006","journal-title":"Law Soc. Inq."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.2307\/2136956","article-title":"The sociological study of stress","volume":"30","author":"Pearlin","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Health Soc. Behav."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e252404","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2025.2404","article-title":"Discrimination, Depression, and Anxiety Among US Adults","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1046\/j.0022-4537.2003.00090.x","article-title":"Race, Class and the Dilemmas of Upward Mobility for African Americans","volume":"59","author":"Cole","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Soc. Issues"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1037\/fam0000822","article-title":"Protective parenting behavior buffers the impact of racial discrimination on depression among Black youth","volume":"35","author":"Lei","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Fam. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2340567","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2023.40567","article-title":"Family-Centered Prevention to Reduce Discrimination-Related Depressive Symptoms Among Black Adolescents: Secondary Analysis of a Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"6","author":"Kogan","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Netw. Open."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1177\/1559827619849028","article-title":"Parenting and Child Development: A Relational Health Perspective","volume":"15","author":"Frosch","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Lifestyle Med."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2021.12.015","article-title":"Relationship between parent\u2013child attachment and depression among migrant children and left-behind children in China","volume":"204","author":"Shuang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Public Health"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/22\/9\/1323\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:33:04Z","timestamp":1760034784000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/22\/9\/1323"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]]},"references-count":90,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph22091323"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph22091323","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,26]]}}}