{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,19]],"date-time":"2026-08-19T18:23:11Z","timestamp":1787163791196,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":221,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,5]],"date-time":"2025-10-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759622400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100008510","name":"University of Maryland","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100008510","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"NRT-INFEWS: UMD Global STEWARDS"},{"name":"UMD School of Public Health by the National Science Foundation\u2019s National Research Traineeship Program","award":["#1828910"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["#1828910"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Nepal is currently facing critical water quality challenges due to urbanization, water management and governance issues, as well as natural disasters. This has resulted in the presence of harmful contaminants (e.g., pathogens, nitrates, arsenic) across multiple water sources, subsequently leading to waterborne disease risks (e.g., cholera and typhoid). In response to these environmental and public health concerns, we conducted a scoping review to assess microbial and chemical contaminants in drinking and irrigation water in Nepal, as well as their potential impacts on public health. Following the JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis and the PRISMA-SCR guidelines, we systematically searched for peer-reviewed literature on Nepal\u2019s water quality in seven databases. Of 3666 unique records screened using predefined inclusion criteria, 140 met our criteria. The studies encompassed a variety of methodological designs, with the majority focusing on water sources in the Bagmati province. Bacteria and arsenic emerged as the most prevalent contaminants. Additionally, diseases such as arsenicosis and typhoid remain widespread and may be linked to contaminated water sources. The review identified key gaps in Nepal\u2019s water quality management, including limited geographic research coverage, inconsistent testing protocols, weak regulatory enforcement, and a lack of integration of water quality with public health planning. Our findings underscore the urgent need for effective surveillance systems and a robust regulatory framework to promptly respond to water contamination events in Nepal.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph22101526","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,6]],"date-time":"2025-10-06T08:10:51Z","timestamp":1759738251000},"page":"1526","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Microbial and Chemical Water Quality Assessments Across the Rural and Urban Areas of Nepal: A Scoping Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4452-4810","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Suhana","family":"Chattopadhyay","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Global, Environmental, and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-6231-7804","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alex","family":"Choiniere","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Global, Environmental, and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8491-6205","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nedelina","family":"Tchangalova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"STEM Library, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yunika","family":"Acharya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research and Development Division, Dhulikhel Hospital, Dhulikhel 45210, Nepal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amy R.","family":"Sapkota","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Global, Environmental, and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8864-2678","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leena","family":"Malayil","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Global, Environmental, and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"UNICEF (2023, October 23). Nepal MICS Statistical Snapshot: Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH). Available online: https:\/\/www.unicef.org\/nepal\/media\/16261\/file\/Nepal-MICS-statistical-Snapshot-Water-Sanitation-and-Hygiene.pdf."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"USAID (2023, October 23). Nepal: High Priority Country Plan, Available online: https:\/\/www.globalwaters.org\/files\/sites\/default\/files\/nepal_hpc_plan_508.pdf."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2023, October 23). KUKL Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited: Annual Report (Sixteenth Anniversary, Kathmandu, 2080 Falgun). Available online: https:\/\/kathmanduwater.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/2024\/02\/KUKL_Annual_Report_2080.pdf."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"(2024, April 17). U.S. Census Bureau Nepal: Population Clock\u2014World, Available online: https:\/\/www.census.gov\/popclock\/world\/np."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1007\/s002670010238","article-title":"Surface Water Pollution in Three Urban Territories of Nepal, India, and Bangladesh","volume":"28","author":"Karn","year":"2001","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1007\/s11270-023-06570-8","article-title":"Occurrence of Unapproved Pesticides and Their Ecotoxicological Significance for an Agriculturally Influenced Reservoir and Its Tributaries in Nepal","volume":"234","author":"Acharya","year":"2023","journal-title":"Water Air Soil. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aryal, M., and Adhikary, S. (2024). Solid Waste Management Practices and Challenges in Besisahar Municipality, Nepal. PLoS ONE, 19.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0292758"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Madhav, S., Kanhaiya, S., Srivastav, A., Singh, V., and Singh, P. (2022). Chapter 23: Water Quality Status in Bagmati River of Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Ecological Significance of River Ecosystems, Elsevier."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghosh, S.K. (2020). Waste Management: A Case Study in Nepal. Solid Waste Policies and Strategies: Issues, Challenges and Case Studies, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-981-15-1543-9"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ogata, R., and Suenaga, K. (2023). Critical Fluctuations in the Arsenic Concentration of Tube Well Water in Nepal: Influences of Monsoon and Groundwater Irrigation. SSRN.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4568649"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfp.2024.100228","article-title":"Contaminated Water and an Indication of Risk: Examining Microbial Contamination in the Water Used by Consumers and Commercial Growers in Fresh Produce Systems in Nepal","volume":"87","author":"Khanal","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"WHO (2025, May 15). GHO|By Category|Number of Deaths by Country\u2014Diarrhoeal Diseases, Available online: https:\/\/apps.who.int\/gho\/data\/view.main.ghe1002015-CH3?lang=en."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"National Planning Commission (2017). Nepal\u2019s Sustainable Development Goals: Baseline Report."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Ministry of Law, Justice & Parliamentary Affairs (2024, June 13). The Constitution of Nepal (First Amendment), 2016 (2072), Available online: https:\/\/ag.gov.np\/files\/Constitution-of-Nepal_2072_Eng_www.moljpa.gov_.npDate-72_11_16.pdf."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Ministry of Planning and Works (2024, June 13). National Drinking Water Quality Standards: Implementation Directives for National Drinking Water Quality Standards, Available online: https:\/\/faolex.fao.org\/docs\/pdf\/nep199481.pdf."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"(2024, June 13). Ministry of Water Supply Wastewater Effluent Standard, 2080, Available online: https:\/\/mows.gov.np\/content\/6451\/6451-effluent-water-standard\/."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"United Nations (2024, June 13). Goal 6: Ensure Access to Water and Sanitation for All, Available online: https:\/\/www.un.org\/sustainabledevelopment\/water-and-sanitation\/."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"ENPHO (2025). Nepal Progress Towards Achieving 2030 Sanitation Goal, ENPHO. Available online: https:\/\/enpho.org\/featured-post\/nepal-progress-towards-achieving-2030-sanitation-goal\/."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Aromataris, E., and Munn, Z. (2020). Chapter 11: Scoping Reviews. JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis, JBI.","DOI":"10.46658\/JBIRM-20-02"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.7326\/M18-0850","article-title":"PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and Explanation","volume":"169","author":"Tricco","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Khan, K.S. (2003). Systematic Reviews to Support Evidence-Based Medicine: How to Review and Apply Findings of Healthcare Research, Royal Society of Medicine Press."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.2166\/washdev.2020.111","article-title":"Physical, Chemical and Microbiological Characterization of Processed Drinking Water in Central Nepal: Current State Study","volume":"10","author":"Burlakoti","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Daniel, D., Diener, A., van de Vossenberg, J., Bhatta, M., and Marks, S.J. (2020). Assessing Drinking Water Quality at the Point of Collection and within Household Storage Containers in the Hilly Rural Areas of Mid and Far-Western Nepal. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17072172"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.5296\/emsd.v6i2.10635","article-title":"Water Quality in the Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal: A Modification of Viable Field-Based Testing Methods","volume":"6","author":"Gruver","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Manag. Sustain. Dev."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"012004","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/120\/1\/012004","article-title":"Detection of Waterborne Protozoa, Viruses, and Bacteria in Groundwater and Other Water Samples in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"120","author":"Haramoto","year":"2018","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1007\/s00284-014-0681-x","article-title":"High-Throughput DNA Microarray Detection of Pathogenic Bacteria in Shallow Well Groundwater in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"70","author":"Inoue","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-010-1706-y","article-title":"Ground Water Quality in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal","volume":"178","author":"Pant","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100658","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envc.2022.100658","article-title":"Water Quality Index of Springs in Mid-Hill of Nepal","volume":"9","author":"Pantha","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Chall."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"234","article-title":"A Large-Scale Study of Bacterial Contamination of Drinking Water and Its Public Health Impact in Nepal","volume":"14","author":"Rai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nepal. Med. Coll. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e3895859","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/3895859","article-title":"Drinking Water Quality and Public Health in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal: Coliform Bacteria, Chemical Contaminants, and Health Status of Consumers","volume":"2022","author":"Sarkar","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Environ. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2011.08.001","article-title":"Isolation and Characterization of Aerobic Culturable Arsenic-Resistant Bacteria from Surfacewater and Groundwater of Rautahat District, Nepal","volume":"95","author":"Shakya","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shrestha, R.G., Tandukar, S., Bhandari, D., Sherchan, S.P., Tanaka, Y., Sherchand, J.B., and Haramoto, E. (2019). Prevalence of Arcobacter and Other Pathogenic Bacteria in River Water in Nepal. Water, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/w11071416"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.05.105","article-title":"Next-Generation Sequencing Identification of Pathogenic Bacterial Genes and Their Relationship with Fecal Indicator Bacteria in Different Water Sources in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"601\u2013602","author":"Shrestha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"57","article-title":"Seasonal Variation of Microbial Quality of Irrigation Water in Different Sources in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"11","author":"Shrestha","year":"2016","journal-title":"Naresuan Univ. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"44","article-title":"Assessment of Water Supply and Microbial Quality of Water among Schools in the Rural Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"18","author":"Silvanus","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nepal Med. Coll. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3390\/w3010001","article-title":"Arsenic Contamination of Groundwater in Nepal: An Overview","volume":"3","author":"Thakur","year":"2011","journal-title":"Water"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.5195\/jmla.2018.283","article-title":"A Systematic Approach to Searching: An Efficient and Complete Method to Develop Literature Searches","volume":"106","author":"Bramer","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Med. Libr. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclinepi.2020.07.005","article-title":"Using the Full PICO Model as a Search Tool for Systematic Reviews Resulted in Lower Recall for Some PICO Elements","volume":"127","author":"Frandsen","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Munn, Z., Peters, M.D.J., Stern, C., Tufanaru, C., McArthur, A., and Aromataris, E. (2018). Systematic Review or Scoping Review? Guidance for Authors When Choosing between a Systematic or Scoping Review Approach. BMC Med. Res. Methodol., 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12874-018-0611-x"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Acharya, K., Khanal, S., Pantha, K., Amatya, N., Davenport, R.J., and Werner, D. (2019). A Comparative Assessment of Conventional and Molecular Methods, Including MinION Nanopore Sequencing, for Surveying Water Quality. Sci. Rep., 9.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-51997-x"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e15739","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e15739","article-title":"Multidrug Resistance, Biofilm Formation and Detection of Bla CTX-M and Bla VIM Genes in E. Coli and Salmonella Isolates from Chutney Served at the Street-Food Stalls of Bharatpur, Nepal","volume":"9","author":"Adhikari","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"328","article-title":"Transport of Toxic Metals through the Major River Systems of Bangladesh","volume":"26","author":"Alam","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Chem. Soc. Pak."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2014.03.096","article-title":"Chemistry and Isotopic Composition of Precipitation and Surface Waters in Khumbu Valley (Nepal Himalaya): N Dynamics of High Elevation Basins","volume":"485","author":"Balestrini","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.59779\/jiomnepal.674","article-title":"Cryptosporidium Infection among the School Children of Kathmandu Valley","volume":"37","author":"Bhandari","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Inst. Med. Nepal"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1007\/s00254-008-1325-x","article-title":"Spatial Variations in Chemical Compositions along Langtang-Narayani River System in Central Nepal","volume":"57","author":"Bhatt","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Geol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gca.2018.06.033","article-title":"Seasonal Variations of Biogeochemical Matter Export along the Langtang-Narayani River System in Central Himalaya","volume":"238","author":"Bhatt","year":"2018","journal-title":"Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e11243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2022.e11243","article-title":"Spatio-Temporal Hydrochemistry of Two Selected Ramsar Sites (Rara and Ghodaghodi) of West Nepal","volume":"8","author":"Bhatta","year":"2022","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.59779\/jiomnepal.734","article-title":"Intestinal Parasitic Infection among School Children in Chitwan District of Nepal","volume":"37","author":"Bhattachan","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Inst. Med. Nepal"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.2478\/limre-2020-0014","article-title":"Environmental Variables and Macrophytes of Lakes of the Chitwan National Park, Central Nepal","volume":"20","author":"Bhusal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Limnol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.2475\/02.2015.02","article-title":"On Discrimination between Carbonate and Silicate Inputs to Himalayan Rivers","volume":"315","author":"Bickle","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Sci."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1194","DOI":"10.1289\/ehp.5966","article-title":"Arsenic Groundwater Contamination in Middle Ganga Plain, Bihar, India: A Future Danger?","volume":"111","author":"Chakraborti","year":"2003","journal-title":"Environ. Health Perspect."},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"227","article-title":"Water Quality Standards for the Bagmati River","volume":"49","author":"Davis","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Water Pollut. Control Fed."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2549","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-7037(00)00379-3","article-title":"Geologic Control of Sr and Major Element Chemistry in Himalayan Rivers, Nepal","volume":"64","author":"English","year":"2000","journal-title":"Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1130\/0091-7613(2001)029<0803:HSORST>2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Hydrothermal Source of Radiogenic Sr to Himalayan Rivers","volume":"29","author":"Evans","year":"2002","journal-title":"Geology"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Evans, M.J., Derry, L.A., and France-Lanord, C. (2004). Geothermal Fluxes of Alkalinity in the Narayani River System of Central Nepal. Geochem. Geophys. Geosystems, 5.","DOI":"10.1029\/2004GC000719"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1016\/0375-6505(85)90007-0","article-title":"Isotopic Composition of the Thermal Waters in the Central Part of the Nepal Himalayas","volume":"14","author":"Grabczak","year":"1985","journal-title":"Geothermics"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4863","DOI":"10.1021\/es7032586","article-title":"Comparison of Selection Methods to Deduce Natural Background Levels for Groundwater Units","volume":"42","author":"Griffioen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1186\/s41182-020-00261-4","article-title":"Prevalence of Intestinal Parasitosis and Associated Risk Factors among School Children of Saptari District, Nepal: A Cross-Sectional Study","volume":"48","author":"Gupta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trop. Med. Health"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gupta, T., and Kumari, R. (2023). Assessment of Groundwater Nitrate Vulnerability Using DRASTIC and Modified DRASTIC in Upper Catchment of Sabarmati Basin. Environ. Earth Sci., 82.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-023-10880-9"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1093\/tropej\/42.5.305","article-title":"Outbreaks of Cholera in Kathmandu Valley in Nepal","volume":"42","author":"Ise","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Trop. Pediatr."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2065","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2427.2003.01138.x","article-title":"Diatoms as Indicators of Stream Quality in the Kathmandu Valley and Middle Hills of Nepal and India","volume":"48","author":"Sharma","year":"2003","journal-title":"Freshw. Biol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.80.12.1037","article-title":"Prevalence and Risk Factors for Trachoma in Sarlahi District, Nepal","volume":"80","author":"Katz","year":"1996","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1080\/10934529.2012.660097","article-title":"Development of an Attached Growth Reactor for NH 4 \u2013N Removal at a Drinking Water Supply System in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"47","author":"Khanitchaidecha","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. Health Part A Tox. Hazard. Subst. Environ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"931","article-title":"Causes and Effects of Critical Change in Nitrate Level of Ground Water in Koshi Region of North Bihar","volume":"32","author":"Kumar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-5-130","article-title":"Blastocystis Sp.: Waterborne Zoonotic Organism, a Possibility?","volume":"5","author":"Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2019.125410","article-title":"Heavy Metals in Surface Sediments in the Trans-Himalayan Koshi River Catchment: Distribution, Source Identification and Pollution Assessment","volume":"244","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"100096","article-title":"Environmental and Spatial Factors Affecting Surface Water Quality in a Himalayan Watershed, Central Nepal","volume":"9","author":"Mainali","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Sustain. Indic."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1007\/s11270-022-05896-z","article-title":"Occurrence and Distribution of Microplastics from Nepal\u2019s Second Largest Lake","volume":"233","author":"Pradhan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Water. Air. Soil Pollut."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70065","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-023-27315-4","article-title":"Microplastic Pollution in Lakeshore Sediments: The First Report on Abundance and Composition of Phewa Lake, Nepal","volume":"30","author":"Phoungthong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39928","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-021-18301-9","article-title":"Microplastic Pollution in Urban Lake Phewa, Nepal: The First Report on Abundance and Composition in Surface Water of Lake in Different Seasons","volume":"29","author":"Suwunwong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0134216","article-title":"Molecular Epidemiology of Helicobacter Pylori Infection in Nepal: Specific Ancestor Root","volume":"10","author":"Miftahussurur","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.12.063","article-title":"Spatiotemporal Variations of Hydrogeochemistry and Its Controlling Factors in the Gandaki River Basin, Central Himalaya Nepal","volume":"622\u2013623","author":"Pant","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.2478\/limre-2021-0018","article-title":"Seasonal Variation of Algal Diversity with Reference to Water Quality in Jagadishpur Reservoir, Nepal","volume":"21","author":"Pokhrel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Limnol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1007\/s10653-008-9233-2","article-title":"Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater in the Southeast Asia Region","volume":"31","author":"Rahman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Geochem. Health"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shaji, E., Santosh, M., Sarath, K.V., Prakash, P., Deepchand, V., and Divya, B.V. (2021). Arsenic Contamination of Groundwater; a Global Synopsis with Focus on the Indian Peninsula. Geosci. Front., 12.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gsf.2020.08.015"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.3126\/jnps.v30i1.2456","article-title":"Infection of Cyclospora Cayetanensis in Diarrhoeal Children of Nepal","volume":"30","author":"Sherchan","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Nepal Paediatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2009.149","article-title":"Use of Faecal Pollution Indicators to Estimate Pathogen Die off Conditions in Source Separated Faeces in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"7","author":"Sherpa","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Water Health"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph14010089","article-title":"Water Quality, Sanitation, and Hygiene Conditions in Schools and Households in Dolakha and Ramechhap Districts, Nepal: Results from a Cross-Sectional Survey","volume":"14","author":"Shrestha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public. Health"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.2166\/wst.2001.0701","article-title":"Constructed Wetland Technology Transfer to Nepal","volume":"43","author":"Shrestha","year":"2001","journal-title":"Water Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1007\/s42452-020-2267-5","article-title":"Hydrochemical Monitoring of Groundwater Quality for Drinking and Irrigation Use in Rapti Basin","volume":"2","author":"Verma","year":"2020","journal-title":"SN Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"179","article-title":"Arsenicosis in Two Villages in Terai, Lowland Nepal","volume":"11","author":"Ahmad","year":"2004","journal-title":"Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"192","article-title":"Drinking Water Quality Assessment","volume":"10","author":"Aryal","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Nepal. Health Res. Counc."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1002\/wwp2.12073","article-title":"An Analysis of Drinking Water Quality Parameters to Achieve Sustainable Development Goals in Rural and Urban Areas of Besisahar, Lamjung, Nepal","volume":"10","author":"Aryal","year":"2022","journal-title":"World Water Policy"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1080\/09603120600869448","article-title":"Bacterial Contamination of Drinking Water and the Economic Burden of Illnesses for the Nepalese Households","volume":"16","author":"Atreya","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Health Res."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baker, S., Holt, K.E., Clements, A.C.A., Karkey, A., Arjyal, A., Boni, M.F., Dongol, S., Hammond, N., Koirala, S., and Duy, P.T. (2011). Combined High-Resolution Genotyping and Geospatial Analysis Reveals Modes of Endemic Urban Typhoid Fever Transmission. Open Biol., 1.","DOI":"10.1098\/rsob.110008"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"B\u00e4nziger, C., Schertenleib, A., Kunwar, B.M., Bhatta, M.R., and Marks, S.J. (2022). Assessing Microbial Water Quality, Users\u2019 Perceptions and System Functionality Following a Combined Water Safety Intervention in Rural Nepal. Front. Water, 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/frwa.2021.750802"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.2166\/washdev.2020.190","article-title":"Water Quality Status of Groundwater and Municipal Water Supply (Tap Water) from Bagmati River Basin in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"11","author":"Bhandari","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Water Sanit. Hyg. Dev."},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Bhatt, M. (2015). Water Quality and Flux of Bagmati River within Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Surface and Sub-Surface Water in Asia: Issues and Perspectives, IOS Press."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"867","DOI":"10.1007\/s00254-008-1562-z","article-title":"Variation in DOC and Trace Metal Concentration along the Heavily Urbanized Basin in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"58","author":"Bhatt","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Geol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.4081\/jlimnol.2007.71","article-title":"Chemical Characteristics of Pond Waters within the Debris Area of Lirung Glacier in Nepal Himalaya","volume":"66","author":"Bhatt","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Limnol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1007\/s11270-007-9439-4","article-title":"Evolution of Chemistry along the Bagmati Drainage Network in Kathmandu Valley","volume":"185","author":"Bhatt","year":"2007","journal-title":"Water Air Soil. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-013-2494-9","article-title":"Chemistry of the Heavily Urbanized Bagmati River System in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal: Export of Organic Matter, Nutrients, Major Ions, Silica, and Metals","volume":"71","author":"Bhatt","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"588","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1472-765X.2007.02133.x","article-title":"Serotyping, PCR, Phage-Typing and Antibiotic Sensitivity Testing of Salmonella Serovars Isolated from Urban Drinking Water Supply Systems of Nepal","volume":"44","author":"Bhatta","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2017\/3723254","article-title":"Isolation of Potential Phages against Multidrug-Resistant Bacterial Isolates: Promising Agents in the Rivers of Kathmandu, Nepal","volume":"2017","author":"Bhetwal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"5","article-title":"Drinking Water Quality & Point-of-Use Treatment Studies in Nepal","volume":"17","author":"Bittner","year":"2002","journal-title":"Civ. Eng. Pract."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e17353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e17353","article-title":"Water Quality and Hydrochemical Assessments of Thermal Springs, Gandaki Province, Nepal","volume":"9","author":"Chalise","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1007\/s11270-009-0249-8","article-title":"Assessment of Deep Groundwater Quality in Kathmandu Valley Using Multivariate Statistical Techniques","volume":"210","author":"Chapagain","year":"2010","journal-title":"Water Air Soil. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2007.10.024","article-title":"Arsenic Contamination of Soils and Agricultural Plants through Irrigation Water in Nepal","volume":"155","author":"Dahal","year":"2008","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1080\/03650340701628197","article-title":"Screening of Arsenic in Irrigation Water Used for Vegetable Production in Nepal","volume":"54","author":"Dahal","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch. Agron. Soil. Sci."},{"key":"ref_100","first-page":"341","article-title":"Effects of Agricultural Intensification on the Quality of Rivers in Rural Watersheds of Nepal","volume":"5","author":"Dahal","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Food Agric. Environ."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"586","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-021-09826-w","article-title":"Spring Water Assessment for Quality and Suitability for Various Uses: The Case of Thuligaad Watershed, Western Nepal","volume":"80","author":"Dumaru","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_102","first-page":"33","article-title":"Perceived Environmental Problems by Nepalese of Three Ecologically Different Areas","volume":"6","author":"Futawatari","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Global Environ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1980","DOI":"10.1002\/fsn3.2164","article-title":"Microbiological Quality Assessment (Including Antibiogram and Threat Assessment) of Bottled Water","volume":"9","author":"Gautam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/6681249","article-title":"Assessment of Bacterial Load in Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) Bottled Water Marketed in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"2021","author":"Gautam","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Polym. Sci."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.04.363","article-title":"Water Quality and Solute Sources in the Marsyangdi River System of Higher Himalayan Range (West-Central Nepal)","volume":"677","author":"Ghezzi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02237608","article-title":"Water Pollution: A Major Crisis in Nepal","volume":"5","author":"Ghimire","year":"1985","journal-title":"Environmentalist"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.2166\/h2oj.2023.008","article-title":"Hydrogeochemical Characteristics of Kodku River of Lalitpur District, Nepal","volume":"6","author":"Ghimire","year":"2023","journal-title":"H2Open J."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103349","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pce.2022.103349","article-title":"Hydro-Chemical Characterisation and Quality Assessment of Shallow Groundwater in Parts of the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"129","author":"Ghimire","year":"2023","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Earth"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/10106049.2023.2168069","article-title":"Groundwater Quality and Community Health Risk in Lalitpur Metropolitan City, Nepal: A Geospatial Analysis","volume":"38","author":"Ghimire","year":"2023","journal-title":"Geocarto Int."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2017.04.182","article-title":"Effects of Inequality of Supply Hours on Consumers\u2019 Coping Strategies and Perceptions of Intermittent Water Supply in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"599","author":"Guragai","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2552","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2011.06.015","article-title":"Organic Persistent Toxic Substances in Soils, Waters and Sediments along an Altitudinal Gradient at Mt. Sagarmatha, Himalayas, Nepal","volume":"159","author":"Guzzella","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-022-10276-5","article-title":"Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater of Nawalparasi-West, Nepal: An Investigation with Suggested Countermeasures for South Asian Region","volume":"194","author":"Gyawali","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.3934\/environsci.2018.3.143","article-title":"The Impact of Latrine Contents and Emptying Practices on Nitrogen Contamination of Well Water in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"5","author":"Hammoud","year":"2018","journal-title":"AIMS Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"350","DOI":"10.1007\/s12560-017-9283-7","article-title":"Quantification and Genotyping of Aichi Virus 1 in Water Samples in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"9","author":"Haramoto","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Environ. Virol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trstmh.2011.08.004","article-title":"Prevalence of Protozoa, Viruses, Coliphages and Indicator Bacteria in Groundwater and River Water in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"105","author":"Haramoto","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2020.223","article-title":"Waterborne Diarrhoeal Infection Risk from Multiple Water Sources and the Impact of an Earthquake","volume":"18","author":"Ito","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Water Health"},{"key":"ref_117","first-page":"495","article-title":"Assessment of the Water Quality of Ghodaghodi Lake Using Selected Physicochemical Parameters","volume":"48","author":"Joshi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Ecology Environm Sci."},{"key":"ref_118","first-page":"171","article-title":"Hydrogeochemistry of Two Major Mid-Hill Lentic Water Bodies for Irrigation of the Central Himalaya, Nepal","volume":"21","author":"Kafle","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environm Nat. Resour. J."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.1007\/s10098-013-0580-z","article-title":"Modeling and Study of the Mechanism of Mobilization of Arsenic Contamination in the Groundwater of Nepal in South Asia","volume":"15","author":"Kanel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clean. Technol. Environ. Policy"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-010-1476-6","article-title":"Chemometrics in Assessment of Seasonal Variation of Water Quality in Fresh Water Systems","volume":"174","author":"Kannel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aca.2006.09.006","article-title":"Chemometric Application in Classification and Assessment of Monitoring Locations of an Urban River System","volume":"582","author":"Kannel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Anal. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-006-9375-6","article-title":"Spatial-Temporal Variation and Comparative Assessment of Water Qualities of Urban River System: A Case Study of the River Bagmati (Nepal)","volume":"129","author":"Kannel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2006.12.021","article-title":"Assessment of Spatial\u2013Temporal Patterns of Surface and Ground Water Qualities and Factors Influencing Management Strategy of Groundwater System in an Urban River Corridor of Nepal","volume":"86","author":"Kannel","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karkey, A., Jombart, T., Walker, A.W., Thompson, C.N., Torres, A., Dongol, S., Tran Vu Thieu, N., Pham Thanh, D., Tran Thi Ngoc, D., and Voong Vinh, P. (2016). The Ecological Dynamics of Fecal Contamination and Salmonella Typhi and Salmonella Paratyphi A in Municipal Kathmandu Drinking Water. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0004346"},{"key":"ref_125","first-page":"41","article-title":"Expedition to Nepal: Research Project Aims to Prevent Waterborne Disease","volume":"53","author":"Kelly","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_126","first-page":"207","article-title":"The Groundwater Quality Situation in Alluvial Aquifers on the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"14","author":"Khadka","year":"1993","journal-title":"AGSO J. Aust. Geol. Geophys."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4191","DOI":"10.1007\/s12517-012-0677-4","article-title":"Major Ion Composition and Seasonal Variation in the Lesser Himalayan Lake: Case of Begnas Lake of the Pokhara Valley, Nepal","volume":"6","author":"Khadka","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arabian J. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.3233\/AJW-150017","article-title":"Urban Pollution of Bagmati River Corridor within the Densely Populated Kathmandu Valley in Nepal","volume":"12","author":"Khadka","year":"2015","journal-title":"Asian J. Wat Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.2166\/wst.2002.0226","article-title":"Groundwater Contamination Assessment for Sustainable Water Supply in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"46","author":"Khatiwada","year":"2002","journal-title":"Water Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1007\/s11270-022-05645-2","article-title":"Assessment of Physico-Chemical Parameters along with the Concentration of Heavy Metals in the Effluents Released from Different Industries in Kathmandu Valley","volume":"233","author":"Koju","year":"2022","journal-title":"Water Air Soil. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114043","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2022.114043","article-title":"Analysis of Local Drinking Water for Fecal Contamination in Solu-Khumbu\/Mt. Everest Region, Nepal","volume":"246","author":"Apel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1007\/s00792-008-0200-8","article-title":"211at 6,350 m on the East Rongbuk Glacier, Mount Everest","volume":"13","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Extrem. Life Under Extrem. Cond."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.2006.00477.x","article-title":"Microbial Community Structure in Moraine Lakes and Glacial Meltwaters, Mount Everest","volume":"265","author":"Liu","year":"2006","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1007\/s10900-010-9282-1","article-title":"Factors Associated with Arsenicosis and Arsenic Exposure Status in Nepal: Implications from Community Based Study","volume":"36","author":"Maden","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Community Health"},{"key":"ref_135","first-page":"246","article-title":"Prevalence of Arsenicosis in Terai, Nepal","volume":"24","author":"Maharjan","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Health Popul. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1136\/jech.2005.045062","article-title":"Mutual Interaction between Nutritional Status and Chronic Arsenic Toxicity Due to Groundwater Contamination in an Area of Terai, Lowland Nepal","volume":"61","author":"Maharjan","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol. Community Health"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.4269\/ajtmh.2005.73.477","article-title":"Short Report: Arsenic Contamination in Drinking Water and Skin Manifestations in Lowland Nepal: The First Community-Based Survey","volume":"73","author":"Maharjan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mahato, S., Mahato, A., Karna, P.K., and Balmiki, N. (2018). Investigating Aquifer Contamination and Groundwater Quality in Eastern Terai Region of Nepal. BMC Res. Notes, 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/s13104-018-3445-z"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.59779\/jiomnepal.664","article-title":"Detection of Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Fecal Indicator Bacteria, and Total Bacteria in Commercial Jar Water in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"37","author":"Malla","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Inst. Med. Nepal."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malla, B., Shrestha, R.G., Tandukar, S., Bhandari, D., Inoue, D., Sei, K., Tanaka, Y., Sherchand, J.B., and Haramoto, E. (2018). Identification of Human and Animal Fecal Contamination in Drinking Water Sources in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, Using Host-Associated Bacteroidales Quantitative PCR Assays. Water, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/w10121796"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.13884","article-title":"Validation of Host-specific Bacteroidales Quantitative PCR Assays and Their Application to Microbial Source Tracking of Drinking Water Sources in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"125","author":"Malla","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malla, B., Shrestha, R.G., Tandukar, S., Bhandari, D., Thakali, O., Sherchand, J.B., and Haramoto, E. (2019). Detection of Pathogenic Viruses, Pathogen Indicators, and Fecal-Source Markers within Tanker Water and Their Sources in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Pathogens, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens8020081"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1007\/s12560-019-09389-x","article-title":"Performance Evaluation of Human-Specific Viral Markers and Application of Pepper Mild Mottle Virus and Crassphage to Environmental Water Samples as Fecal Pollution Markers in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"11","author":"Malla","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Environ. Virol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6446","DOI":"10.1080\/03067319.2022.2145473","article-title":"Water Quality Assessment through Numerical Indices in Phewa Lake, Nepal","volume":"104","author":"Pradhan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Anal. Chem."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meierhofer, R., B\u00e4nziger, C., Deppeler, S., Kunwar, B.M., and Bhatta, M. (2018). From Water Source to Tap of Ceramic Filters-Factors That Influence Water Quality between Collection and Consumption in Rural Households in Nepal. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph15112439"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1007\/s00267-004-0118-6","article-title":"Public Water Sources in Rural Watersheds of Nepal\u2019s Middle Mountains: Issues and Constraints","volume":"34","author":"Merz","year":"2004","journal-title":"Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13734","DOI":"10.11609\/jott.4481.11.6.13734-13747","article-title":"Baseline Biodiversity and Physiochemical Survey in Parvati Kunda and Surrounding Area in Rasuwa, Nepal","volume":"11","author":"Moravek","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Threat. Taxa"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chemosphere.2018.07.024","article-title":"Climatic Variations and De-Coupling between Arsenic and Iron in Arsenic Contaminated Ground Water in the Lowlands of Nepal","volume":"210","author":"Mueller","year":"2018","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3269","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-014-3231-8","article-title":"Geochemical Assessment of Arsenic Contamination in Well Water and Sediments from Several Communities in the Nawalparasi District of Nepal","volume":"72","author":"Nakano","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1659\/MRD-JOURNAL-D-17-00024.1","article-title":"An Assessment of Drinking Water Sources in Sagarmatha National Park (Mt Everest Region), Nepal","volume":"38","author":"Nicholson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mt. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/s41043-016-0054-0","article-title":"Bacteriological Quality of Bottled Drinking Water versus Municipal Tap Water in Dharan Municipality, Nepal","volume":"35","author":"Pant","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Health Popul. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pant, R.R., Bishwakarma, K., Basnet, B.B., Pal, K.B., Karki, L., Dhital, Y.P., Bhatta, Y.R., Pant, B.R., and Thapa, L.B. (2021). Distribution and Risk Appraisal of Dissolved Trace Elements in Begnas Lake and Rupa Lake, Gandaki Province, Nepal. SN Appl. Sci., 3.","DOI":"10.1007\/s42452-021-04516-5"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1007\/s11631-023-00611-z","article-title":"Seasonal Variations and Health Risk Assessment of Trace Elements in the Badigad River, Lesser Himalayas, Nepal","volume":"42","author":"Pant","year":"2023","journal-title":"Acta Geochim."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1007\/s00128-021-03288-3","article-title":"Seasonal Variations and Health Risk Assessment of Trace Elements in Seti River Basin, Gandaki Province, Nepal","volume":"107","author":"Pant","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112522","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2021.112522","article-title":"Imprints of COVID-19 Lockdown on the Surface Water Quality of Bagmati River Basin, Nepal","volume":"289","author":"Pant","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-021-09437-9","article-title":"Hydrochemical Appraisal and Solute Acquisitions in Seti River Basin, Central Himalaya, Nepal","volume":"193","author":"Pant","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121913","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhazmat.2019.121913","article-title":"Spatiotemporal Characterization of Dissolved Trace Elements in the Gandaki River, Central Himalaya Nepal","volume":"389","author":"Pant","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Hazard Mater."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41545-021-00099-1","article-title":"Faecal Pollution Source Tracking in the Holy Bagmati River by Portable 16S rRNA Gene Sequencing","volume":"4","author":"Pantha","year":"2021","journal-title":"NPJ Clean Water"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.5004\/dwt.2010.1884","article-title":"An Investigation of Nitrate and Iron Concentrations and Their Relationship in Shallow Groundwater Systems of Kathmandu","volume":"19","author":"Pathak","year":"2010","journal-title":"Desalin Water Treat."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.3126\/sw.v15i15.45647","article-title":"Microbiological Assessment for Potable Water","volume":"15","author":"Paudel","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. World"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-015-4811-y","article-title":"Major Ions and Trace Elements of Two Selected Rivers near Everest Region, Southern Himalayas, Nepal","volume":"75","author":"Paudyal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/6025905","article-title":"Variations of the Physicochemical Parameters and Metal Levels and Their Risk Assessment in Urbanized Bagmati River, Kathmandu, Nepal","volume":"2016","author":"Paudyal","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_163","first-page":"139","article-title":"Prevalence of Aeromonas in Different Clinical and Water Samples with Special Reference to Gastroenteritis","volume":"6","author":"Pokhrel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nepal Med. Coll. J."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.54796\/njb.v9i2.41908","article-title":"Microbial and Physico-Chemical Quality Assessment of Rivers of Kathmandu Valley","volume":"9","author":"Poudel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nepal. J. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1080\/14634980500208176","article-title":"Knowledge of Water Quality and Water Borne Disease in Rural Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"8","author":"Pradhan","year":"2005","journal-title":"Aquat. Ecosyst. Health Manag."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/s40899-022-00636-x","article-title":"Long-Term Assessment of Water Quality of Kathmandu University Drinking Water Supply Centre, Nepal","volume":"8","author":"Pradhan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sustain. Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_167","first-page":"281","article-title":"Status of Drinking Water Contamination in Mountain Region, Nepal","volume":"11","author":"Rai","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nepal Med. Coll. J."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-017-6090-4","article-title":"Applying a Water Quality Index Model to Assess the Water Quality of the Major Rivers in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"189","author":"Regmi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"959","DOI":"10.1080\/10807039.2017.1292117","article-title":"Assessment of Water Quality and Health Risks for Toxic Trace Elements in Urban Phewa and Remote Gosainkunda Lakes, Nepal","volume":"23","author":"Rupakheti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Hum. Ecol. Risk Assess."},{"key":"ref_170","first-page":"235","article-title":"Assessment of Water Pollution in the Narayani River, Nepal","volume":"26","author":"Sah","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int. J. Ecology Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s40899-021-00559-z","article-title":"Assessment of Water Quality Using Multivariate Statistical Approaches in Jagadishpur Reservoir, Lumbini Province, Nepal","volume":"7","author":"Sapkota","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sustain. Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shakya, B.M., Nakamura, T., Kamei, T., Shrestha, S.D., and Nishida, K. (2019). Seasonal Groundwater Quality Status and Nitrogen Contamination in the Shallow Aquifer System of the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Water, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/w11102184"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2668","DOI":"10.1007\/s10668-020-00694-1","article-title":"Major Ions and Irrigation Water Quality Assessment of the Nepalese Himalayan Rivers","volume":"23","author":"Sharma","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Dev. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1007\/s10201-011-0366-0","article-title":"First Results on Bathymetry and Limnology of High-Altitude Lakes in the Gokyo Valley, Sagarmatha (Everest) National Park, Nepal","volume":"13","author":"Sharma","year":"2012","journal-title":"Limnology"},{"key":"ref_175","first-page":"58","article-title":"Study of Cyclospora Cayetanensis in Health Care Facilities, Sewage Water and Green Leafy Vegetables in Nepal","volume":"30","author":"Sherchand","year":"1999","journal-title":"Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shrestha, A., Six, J., Dahal, D., Marks, S., and Meierhofer, R. (2020). Association of Nutrition, Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Practices with Children\u2019s Nutritional Status, Intestinal Parasitic Infections and Diarrhoea in Rural Nepal: A Cross-Sectional Study. BMC Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-020-09302-3"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.54796\/njb.v9i2.41913","article-title":"Simple Method Devised for Rapid Isolation and Identification of Vibrio Cholerae from Water Resources of Sunsari District, Nepal","volume":"9","author":"Shrestha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nepal. J. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1264\/jsme2.ME18052","article-title":"Development of a Quantitative PCR Assay for Arcobacter spp. and Its Application to Environmental Water Samples","volume":"33","author":"Shrestha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbes Environ."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1081\/ESE-120016888","article-title":"Groundwater Arsenic Contamination, Its Health Impact and Mitigation Program in Nepal","volume":"38","author":"Shrestha","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Environ. Sci. Health A Tox Hazard. Subst. Environ. Eng."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shrestha, R.R., Shrestha, M.P., Upadhyay, N.P., Pradhan, R., Khadka, R., Maskey, A., Tuladhar, S., Dahal, B.M., Shrestha, S., and Shrestha, K.B. (2003). Groundwater Arsenic Contamination in Nepal: A New Challenge for Water Supply Sector. Arsenic Exposure and Health Effects V, Elsevier Science.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-044451441-7\/50003-8"},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2014.036","article-title":"Risk of Diarrhoea from Shallow Groundwater Contaminated with Enteropathogens in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"13","author":"Shrestha","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Water Health"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.59779\/jiomnepal.699","article-title":"Detection of Coliform Bacteria in Irrigation Water and on Vegetable Surfaces in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal","volume":"38","author":"Shrestha","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Inst. Med. Nepal"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1093\/inthealth\/ihy037","article-title":"Groundwater Use and Diarrhoea in Urban Nepal: Novel Application of a Geostatistical Interpolation Technique Linking Environmental and Epidemiologic Survey Data","volume":"10","author":"Shrestha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. Health"},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.2166\/ws.2013.213","article-title":"Seasonal Variation in the Microbial Quality of Shallow Groundwater in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"14","author":"Shrestha","year":"2014","journal-title":"Water Sci. Technol. Water Supply"},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1007\/s12560-017-9324-2","article-title":"Virological Quality of Irrigation Water Sources and Pepper Mild Mottle Virus and Tobacco Mosaic Virus as Index of Pathogenic Virus Contamination Level","volume":"10","author":"Shrestha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Environ. Virol."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1007\/s11270-021-05132-0","article-title":"Development of a Microbiological Paper-Based Analytical Device to Detect Fecal Contamination of Water in Resource-Limited Settings","volume":"232","author":"Spica","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Air Soil Pollut."},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1007\/s11270-020-04920-4","article-title":"Investigation of Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia Coli in Groundwater, River Water, and Fecal Sources in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"231","author":"Sthapit","year":"2020","journal-title":"Water Air Soil Pollut."},{"key":"ref_188","first-page":"739","article-title":"Physicochemical and Microbiological Analysis of Drinking Water Treated by Using Ozone","volume":"41","author":"Subedi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sains Malays."},{"key":"ref_189","first-page":"110","article-title":"Public Perception about Drinking Jar Water and Its Bacteriological Analysis","volume":"12","author":"Subedi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nepal Med. Coll. J."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.3126\/njb.v5i1.18866","article-title":"Assessment of Quality of Underground Drinking Water: Very near (\u226420 Meters) and Far (>50 Meters) from the River","volume":"5","author":"Subedi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nepal J. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139836","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.139836","article-title":"Mercury Variation and Export in Trans-Himalayan Rivers: Insights from Field Observations in the Koshi River","volume":"738","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_192","first-page":"290","article-title":"Water Quality Assessment of City Water Supply in Kathmandu Valley","volume":"37","author":"Tamrakar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Indian J. Environ. Prot."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.2166\/wh.2011.086","article-title":"Characterization of Microbial Communities Distributed in the Groundwater Pumped from Deep Tube Wells in the Kathmandu Valley of Nepal","volume":"10","author":"Tanaka","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Water Health"},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tandukar, S., Sherchand, J.B., Bhandari, D., Sherchan, S.P., Malla, B., Ghaju Shrestha, R., and Haramoto, E. (2018). Presence of Human Enteric Viruses, Protozoa, and Indicators of Pathogens in the Bagmati River, Nepal. Pathogens, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens7020038"},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tandukar, S., Sherchand, J.B., Karki, S., Malla, B., Ghaju Shrestha, R., Bhandari, D., Thakali, O., and Haramoto, E. (2019). Co-Infection by Waterborne Enteric Viruses in Children with Gastroenteritis in Nepal. Healthcare, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare7010009"},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4973","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-015-4514-4","article-title":"Hydrogeochemical Evaluation of Groundwater of Bhaktapur Municipality, Nepal","volume":"74","author":"Thakur","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1995","DOI":"10.1007\/s40899-019-00354-x","article-title":"Quality of Drinking Water in Kathmandu Valley, Nepal","volume":"5","author":"Thapa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sustain. Water Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"855","DOI":"10.1007\/s00128-016-1945-x","article-title":"Preliminary Health Risk Assessment of Potentially Toxic Metals in Surface Water of the Himalayan Rivers, Nepal","volume":"97","author":"Tripathee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_199","first-page":"124","article-title":"Studies in River Pollution in Kathmandu Valley","volume":"24","author":"Upadhyaya","year":"1982","journal-title":"Indian J. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coesh.2019.01.004","article-title":"Arsenic in Drinking Water: Recent Examples and Updates from Southeast Asia","volume":"7","author":"Uppal","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Environ. Sci. Health"},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113484","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijheh.2020.113484","article-title":"Assessment of Microbial Risks by Characterization of Escherichia Coli Presence to Analyze the Public Health Risks from Poor Water Quality in Nepal","volume":"226","author":"Uprety","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3244","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apgeochem.2008.07.005","article-title":"Comparison of Arsenic Concentrations in Simultaneously-Collected Ground Water and Aquifer Particles from Bangladesh, India, Vietnam, and Nepal","volume":"23","author":"Radloff","year":"2008","journal-title":"Appl. Geochem."},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1007\/s10040-007-0238-1","article-title":"Drinking Water Quality in Nepal\u2019s Kathmandu Valley: A Survey and Assessment of Selected Controlling Site Characteristics","volume":"16","author":"Warner","year":"2008","journal-title":"Hydrogeol. J."},{"key":"ref_204","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1139\/a11-002","article-title":"Current Status of Groundwater Arsenic and Its Impacts on Health and Mitigation Measures in the Terai Basin of Nepal: An Overview","volume":"19","author":"Yadav","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Rev."},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-013-2952-4","article-title":"Assessment of Groundwater Quality with Special Reference to Arsenic in Nawalparasi District, Nepal Using Multivariate Statistical Techniques","volume":"72","author":"Yadav","year":"2014","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1265","DOI":"10.1007\/s12665-014-3480-6","article-title":"Spatial and Temporal Variation in Arsenic in the Groundwater of Upstream of Ganges River Basin, Nepal","volume":"73","author":"Yadav","year":"2015","journal-title":"Environ. Earth Sci."},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gexplo.2014.09.002","article-title":"Reductive Dissolution of Iron Oxyhydroxides Directs Ground Water Arsenic Mobilization in the Upstream of Ganges River Basin, Nepal","volume":"148","author":"Yadav","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Geochem. Explor."},{"key":"ref_208","first-page":"125","article-title":"Spatial Distribution of Arsenic in Groundwater of Southern Nepal","volume":"218","author":"Yadav","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rev. Environ. Contam. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_209","first-page":"53","article-title":"What Are Different Research Approaches? Comprehensive Review of Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Method Research, Their Applications, Types, and Limitations","volume":"5","author":"Taherdoost","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Manag. Sci. Eng. Res."},{"key":"ref_210","unstructured":"UNICEF (2024, June 30). Nepal Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2019: Monitoring the Situation of Children and Women. Available online: https:\/\/www.unicef.org\/nepal\/reports\/multiple-indicator-cluster-survey-final-report-2019."},{"key":"ref_211","unstructured":"Sharma, L., Gupta, N., and Basnayake, S. (2021). Water Sector Policies and Guidelines of Nepal: Review Report, Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC). Available online: https:\/\/www.adpc.net\/igo\/category\/ID1811\/doc\/2022-otj7NA-ADPC-Water_Sector_Policies_and_Guidelines_of_Nepal.pdf."},{"key":"ref_212","unstructured":"National Statistics Office (2024, June 02). National Population and Housing Census 2021: Population Size and Distribution, Available online: https:\/\/censusnepal.cbs.gov.np\/results\/population."},{"key":"ref_213","unstructured":"Dahal, B. (2024, June 02). Pokhara Poised to Lure More Tourists. Available online: https:\/\/risingnepaldaily.com\/news\/40360."},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.3126\/jngs.v60i0.31267","article-title":"Land Use and Land Cover Changes in the Catchments Impact the Ecosystem in Phewa, Begnas, and Rupa Lakes, Nepal","volume":"60","author":"Acharya","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Nepal. Geol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2008.06.003","article-title":"Arsenic Contamination of Groundwater in the Terai Region of Nepal: An Overview of Health Concerns and Treatment Options","volume":"35","author":"Pokhrel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1002\/vjch.202200116","article-title":"Arsenic Contamination of Groundwater Sources and a Comparative Study of Its Remediation by Various Conventional and Recent Approaches in Nepal","volume":"62","author":"Rasaili","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vietnam. J. Chem."},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S826","DOI":"10.1177\/09603271211045955","article-title":"Arsenic Exposure and Non-Carcinogenic Health Effects","volume":"40","author":"Valenzuela","year":"2021","journal-title":"Hum. Exp. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Philip, L., Pradeep, T., and Bhallamudi, S.M. (2023). Chapter 2: Water Quality Status and Challenges in India and Nepal. Technological Solutions for Water Sustainability: Challenges and Prospects Towards a Water-Secure India, IWA Publishing.","DOI":"10.2166\/9781789063714"},{"key":"ref_219","unstructured":"Sawe, B.E. (2024, June 02). What Are the Biggest Industries in Nepal?. Available online: https:\/\/www.worldatlas.com\/articles\/what-are-the-biggest-industries-in-nepal.html."},{"key":"ref_220","unstructured":"UNICEF (2024, June 02). Sustainable Development Goals. Available online: https:\/\/nepal.un.org\/en\/sdgs."},{"key":"ref_221","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e29407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e29407","article-title":"Integrated Assessment of Irrigation and Agriculture Management Challenges in Nepal: An Interdisciplinary Perspective","volume":"10","author":"Nepal","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/22\/10\/1526\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T04:20:50Z","timestamp":1760070050000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/22\/10\/1526"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,5]]},"references-count":221,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph22101526"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph22101526","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,5]]}}}