{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,13]],"date-time":"2026-07-13T10:44:00Z","timestamp":1783939440596,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,23]],"date-time":"2025-10-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761177600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100007843","name":"NORAD","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["61720"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61720"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100007843","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Urban and peri-urban farmers in Malawi increasingly use treated and untreated wastewater for vegetable production, but little is known about the extent of heavy metal accumulation in both exotic and indigenous vegetables, particularly with respect to differences between edible tissues (leaves vs. stems). This study addresses this gap by measuring the concentrations of cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) in wastewater, soils, and six vegetables including three exotic and three indigenous irrigated with effluent from the Soche Wastewater Treatment Plant in Blantyre. Metal concentrations were determined using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry. Wastewater contained Zn (0.01 \u00b1 0.001 mg\/L) and Cu (0.02 \u00b1 0.018 mg\/L), both below World Health Organization (WHO) and Malawi Bureau of Standards (MBS) limits (Zn: 0.2 mg\/L; Cu: 2 mg\/L), while Cd, Cr, and Pb were below detection limit. In soils, Zn reached 56.4 \u00b1 0.5 mg\/kg, exceeding the WHO limit of 36 mg\/kg; other metals remained within WHO permissible values. Vegetables showed species- and tissue-specific variation in metal accumulation: Cr reached 4.65 mg\/kg in Cucurbita moschata stems, Cd up to 0.31 mg\/kg in Amaranthus retro-flexus leaves, and Pb up to 4.09 mg\/kg in Brassica rapa stems\u2014all above FAO\/WHO permissible limits (2.3, 0.2, and 0.3 mg\/kg, respectively). Duncan\u2019s post hoc analysis confirmed significant differences (p &lt; 0.05) across matrices and plant parts, with leaves generally accumulating more Zn and Cu than stems. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that Zn, Cu, Cr, and Pb in the wastewater-soil-vegetable system largely share a common source, likely wastewater effluent and historical soil contamination, while Cd showed a more sporadic distribution, highlighting differential accumulation pathways. Health risk assessments revealed high Health Risk Index (HRI) values, with Brassica rapa stems (HRI = 92.3) and Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis leaves (HRI = 82.2) exceeding the safe threshold (HRI &gt; 1), indicating potential chronic risks. This study reveals potential health risks associated with wastewater irrigation due to heavy metal accumulation in edible vegetables, and therefore recommends further research on metal speciation, seasonal variation, and bioaccumulation at different crop growth stages.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph22111614","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,23]],"date-time":"2025-10-23T09:44:30Z","timestamp":1761212670000},"page":"1614","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Assessment of Heavy Metal Accumulation in Wastewater\u2013Receiving Soil\u2013Exotic and Indigenous Vegetable Systems and Its Potential Health Risks: A Case Study from Blantyre, Malawi"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-4980-9909","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chimwemwe","family":"Chiutula","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Energy Resources, Ndata School of Climate and Earth Sciences, Malawi University of Science and Technology, Limbe, Blantyre P.O. Box 5196, Malawi"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2618-7451","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Andrew G.","family":"Mtewa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Applied Studies, Chemistry Section, Malawi Institute of Technology, Malawi University of Science and Technology, Limbe, Blantyre P.O. Box 5196, Malawi"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Amon","family":"Abraham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Energy Resources, Ndata School of Climate and Earth Sciences, Malawi University of Science and Technology, Limbe, Blantyre P.O. Box 5196, Malawi"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard Lizwe Steven","family":"Mvula","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth Sciences, Ndata School of Climate and Earth Sciences, Malawi University of Science and Technology, Limbe, Blantyre P.O. Box 5196, Malawi"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4451-7277","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alfred","family":"Maluwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Directorate of Research and Outreach, Malawi University of Science and Technology, Limbe, Blantyre P.O. Box 2109, Malawi"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fasil Ejigu","family":"Eregno","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Building, Energy and Material Technology, Faculty of Engineering Science and Technology, UiT, The Arctic University of Norway, Postboks 385, 8514 Narvik, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0602-548X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John","family":"Njalam\u2019mano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Water Resources Management, Ndata School of Climate and Earth Sciences, Malawi University of Science and Technology, Limbe, Blantyre P.O. Box 5196, Malawi"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1007\/s11270-021-05154-8","article-title":"Wastewater treatment and reuse: A review of its applications and health implications","volume":"232","author":"Kesari","year":"2021","journal-title":"Water Air Soil Pollut."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, J.A. (2023). Wastewater treatment and reuse for sustainable water resources management: A systematic literature review. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su151410940"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105454","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resconrec.2021.105454","article-title":"A review of wastewater irrigation: Environmental implications","volume":"168","author":"Singh","year":"2021","journal-title":"Resour. Conserv. Recycl."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"FAO (2012). Coping with Water Scarcity: An Action Framework, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"UNESCO\/UN-Water (2017). The United Nations World Water Development Report 2017: Wastewater: The Untapped Resource, UNESCO."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santos, A.F., Alvarenga, P., Gando-Ferreira, L.M., and Quina, M.J. (2023). Urban Wastewater as a Source of Reclaimed Water for Irrigation: Barriers and Future Possibilities. Environments, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/environments10020017"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11786302241310661","DOI":"10.1177\/11786302241310661","article-title":"Presence of heavy metals in vegetables irrigated with wastewater-impacted rivers and its health risks in Ethiopia: Systematic review","volume":"19","author":"Negassa","year":"2025","journal-title":"Environ. Health Insights"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cofs.2021.01.006","article-title":"Burden of foodborne diseases: Think global, act local","volume":"39","author":"Pires","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2016). WHO\u2019s first ever global estimates of foodborne diseases find children under 5 account for almost one third of deaths. Saudi Med. J., 37, 109\u2013110. Available online: https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/pmc\/articles\/PMC4724672\/."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dintsi, B.S., Letsoalo, M.R., and Ambushe, A.A. (2023). Bioaccumulation and human health risk assessment of arsenic and chromium species in water-soil-vegetables system in Lephalale, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Minerals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/min13070930"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"762","DOI":"10.33745\/ijzi.2021.v07i02.061","article-title":"A review on the effect of heavy metal contamination and its impact on the environment","volume":"7","author":"MathuMitha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Zool. Investig."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Balali-Mood, M., Naseri, K., Tahergorabi, Z., and Khazdair, M.R. (2021). Toxic mechanisms of five heavy metals: Mercury, lead, chromium, cadmium, and arsenic. Front. Pharmacol., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.643972"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Genchi, G., Sinicropi, M.S., Lauria, G., Carocci, A., and Catalano, A. (2020). The effects of cadmium toxicity. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph17113782"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.5897\/AJEST2017.2367","article-title":"A review of heavy metals in soil and aquatic systems of urban and semi-urban areas in Malawi with comparisons to other selected countries","volume":"11","author":"Kaonga","year":"2017","journal-title":"Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"100567","article-title":"Is the concentration of heavy metals in sun-dried Engraulicypris sardella (G\u00fcnther, 1868) in Malawi a human health risk?","volume":"11","author":"Simfukwe","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Chall."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rashid, A., Ahmad, I., Rafiq, A., Iqbal, N., Khan, A., Shahzad, A., Noor, S., Khan, A., Khan, M., and Khan, S. (2023). Heavy metal contamination in agricultural soil: Environmental pollutants affecting crop health. Agronomy, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/agronomy13061521"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e40370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2024.e40370","article-title":"Review on the impact of heavy metals from industrial wastewater effluent and removal technologies","volume":"10","author":"Oladimeji","year":"2024","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71940","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-22210-w","article-title":"Heavy metals in vegetables: A review of status, human health concerns, and management options","volume":"30","author":"Manwani","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.2166\/aqua.2023.122","article-title":"Heavy metals in agricultural cultivated products irrigated with wastewater in India: A review","volume":"72","author":"Mohanty","year":"2023","journal-title":"AQUA\u2014Water Infrastruct. Ecosyst. Soc."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106054","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2024.106054","article-title":"Heavy metal contamination in the wastewater irrigated soil and bioaccumulation in cultivated vegetables: Assessment of human health risk","volume":"128","author":"Singh","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Obijianya, C.C., Yakamercan, E., Karimi, M., Veluru, S., Simko, I., Eshkabilov, S., and Simsek, H. (2025). Agricultural irrigation using treated wastewater: Challenges and opportunities. Water, 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/w17142083"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wds.2025.100224","article-title":"Impact of municipal wastewater use on urban and peri-urban agricultural productivity: The endogenous treatment-effects approach","volume":"6","author":"Abdulai","year":"2025","journal-title":"World Dev. Sustain."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"1772629","article-title":"Wastewater-irrigated urban vegetable farming in Ethiopia: A review on their potential contamination and health effects","volume":"8","author":"Gashaye","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"201","article-title":"Heavy metal speciation and health risk assessment of soil and jute mallow (Corchorus olitorus) collected from a farm settlement in Nigeria","volume":"8","author":"Makanjuola","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Agric. Chem. Environ."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1234","article-title":"Comparison of pollutant levels in effluent from wastewater treatment plants in Blantyre, Malawi","volume":"91","author":"Kraslawski","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Malikula, R.S., Kaonga, C.C., Mapoma, H.W.T., Chiipa, P., and Thulu, F.G.D. (2022). Heavy metals and nutrients loads in water, soil, and crops irrigated with effluent from WWTPs in Blantyre City, Malawi. Water, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/w14010121"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Collet, S., Yesaya, M., and Tilley, E. (2025, May 23). SFD Report Blantyre Malawi Final Report. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance 2018. Available online: https:\/\/www.susana.org\/_resources\/documents\/default\/3-3545-7-1550665329.pdf."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pce.2007.07.045","article-title":"Water quality assessment in streams and wastewater treatment plants of Blantyre, Malawi","volume":"32","author":"Sajidu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Phys. Chem. Earth Parts A\/B\/C"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"e02603","article-title":"Heavy Metal Contamination in Vegetables and Associated Health Risks","volume":"27","author":"Alegbe","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sci. Afr."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Baird, R., Eaton, A.D., Rice, E.W., and Bridgewater, L. (2017). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, American Public Health Association."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120206","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvman.2024.120206","article-title":"Assessment of Heavy Metals Accumulation by Vegetables Irrigated with Different Stages of Textile Wastewater for Evaluation of Food and Health Risk","volume":"353","author":"Hassan","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Environ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khan, M.N., Aslam, M.A., Bin Muhsinah, A., and Uddin, J. (2023). Heavy Metals in Vegetables: Screening Health Risks of Irrigation with Wastewater in Peri-Urban Areas of Bhakkar, Pakistan. Toxics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics11050460"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"van den Berge, P. (2020). Good Agricultural Practice in Irrigation Management, Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL). Technical Guide No. 2522."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abbas, M.T., Wadaan, M.A., Ullah, H., Farooq, M., Fozia, F., Ahmad, I., Khan, M.F., Baabbad, A., and Ullah, Z. (2023). Bioaccumulation and Mobility of Heavy Metals in the Soil\u2013Plant System and Health Risk Assessment of Vegetables Irrigated by Wastewater. Sustainability, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/su152115321"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kania, H., and Saternus, M. (2023). Evaluation and Current State of Primary and Secondary Zinc Production\u2014A Review. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app13032003"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxrep.2023.10.012","article-title":"Arsenic (As), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and selenium (Se) in northwest Croatian seafood: A health risks assessment","volume":"11","author":"Traven","year":"2023","journal-title":"Toxicol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100093","DOI":"10.1016\/j.seh.2024.100093","article-title":"Comparative assessment of copper pollution, bioavailability, and ecological risks in soil-cacao systems under organic versus conventional management","volume":"2","author":"Eduah","year":"2024","journal-title":"Soil Environ. Health"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.2166\/ws.2021.251","article-title":"Release flux of heavy metals from river sediments at different flow rates","volume":"22","author":"Lu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Water Supply"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"(2005). Malawi Standard, Drinking Water\u2014Specification (Standard No. MS 214:2005, ICS 13.030.40 (First Revision))."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"2148","article-title":"Water contamination by heavy metals and their toxic effect on aquaculture and human health through food chain","volume":"10","author":"Sonone","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lett. Appl. NanoBioSci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Collao, J., Garc\u00eda-Encina, P.A., Blanco, S., Bolado-Rodr\u00edguez, S., and Fernandez Gonzalez, N. (2022). Current concentrations of Zn, Cu, and As in piggery wastewater compromise nutrient removals in microalgae\u2013bacteria photobioreactors due to altered microbial communities. Biology, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology11081176"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1373","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-023-11987-z","article-title":"Ecological and Human Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Sewage Sludge Produced in Silesian Voivodeship, Poland: A Case Study","volume":"195","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jssas.2018.02.003","article-title":"Impact of irrigation with wastewater on accumulation of heavy metals in soil and crops in the region of Marrakech in Morocco","volume":"18","author":"Chaoua","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Saudi Soc. Agric. Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101653","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jksus.2021.101653","article-title":"Health and environmental effects of heavy metals","volume":"34","author":"Zaynab","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. King Saud Univ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kinuthia, G.K., Ngure, V., Beti, D., Lugalia, R., Wangila, A., and Kamau, L. (2020). Levels of heavy metals in wastewater and soil samples from open drainage channels in Nairobi, Kenya: Community health implication. Sci. Rep., 10.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-65359-5"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1744","DOI":"10.1080\/01904167.2018.1462382","article-title":"Heavy metals in vegetables and their impact on the nutrient quality of vegetables: A review","volume":"41","author":"Manzoor","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Plant Nutr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plaphy.2019.10.035","article-title":"Selenium mitigates the chromium toxicity in Brassica napus L. by ameliorating nutrients uptake, amino acids metabolism and antioxidant defense system","volume":"145","author":"Ulhassan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Plant Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1238","DOI":"10.1007\/s12517-022-10519-2","article-title":"Determination of heavy metal accumulation in wastewater irrigated pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima Duch.) by spectroscopic method","volume":"15","author":"Ugulu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Arab. J. Geosci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7370171","DOI":"10.1155\/2023\/7370171","article-title":"Determination of the Selected Heavy Metal Content and Its Associated Health Risks in Selected Vegetables Marketed in Bahir Dar Town, Northwest Ethiopia","volume":"2023","author":"Asrade","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Food Qual."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e08039","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2021.e08039","article-title":"Geographically weighted principal component analysis for characterising the spatial heterogeneity and connectivity of soil heavy metals in Kumasi, Ghana","volume":"7","author":"Aidoo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"790","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-023-11422-3","article-title":"High phytoremediation and translocation potential of an invasive weed species (Amaranthus retroflexus) in Europe in metal-contaminated areas","volume":"195","author":"Sipos","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hakeem, K.R. (2015). Heavy metal stress and crop productivity. Crop Production and Global Environmental Issues, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-23162-4"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, Y., Li, X., Wei, H., Li, X., and Duan, Z. (2024). Heavy metals in agricultural soils: Sources, influencing factors, and distribution patterns. Toxics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics12010063"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.31763\/bioenvipo.v2i2.584","article-title":"Health risk assessment of heavy metals (lead and cadmium) in transgenic corn in Tehran","volume":"2","author":"Hatami","year":"2022","journal-title":"Biol. Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100197","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envc.2021.100197","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms underlying heavy metal uptake, translocation and tolerance in hyperaccumulators","volume":"4","author":"Pasricha","year":"2021","journal-title":"Environ. Chall."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.4315\/0362-028X.JFP-19-312","article-title":"Concentration and risk assessment of potentially toxic elements, lead and cadmium, in vegetables and cereals consumed in western Iran","volume":"83","author":"Heshmati","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Food Prot."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100044","DOI":"10.1016\/j.totert.2023.100044","article-title":"The use of wastewater for irrigation: Pros and cons for human health in developing countries","volume":"6","author":"Ahmad","year":"2023","journal-title":"Total Environ. Res. Themes"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100064","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hazl.2022.100064","article-title":"Bioaccumulation of lead (Pb) and its effects in plants: A review","volume":"3","author":"Collin","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hazard. Mater. Lett."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"127848","article-title":"Lead accumulation and its subcellular distribution in edible parts of leafy vegetables","volume":"262","author":"Duan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, J.-S., and Gong, J.-M. (2014). Vacuolar sequestration capacity and long-distance metal transport in plants. Front. Plant Sci., 5.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpls.2014.00019"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105046","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2019.105046","article-title":"Soil amendments for immobilization of potentially toxic elements in contaminated soils: A critical review","volume":"134","author":"Palansooriya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13547","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e13547","article-title":"Comparative assessment of the heavy metal phytoextraction potential of vegetables from agricultural soils: A field experiment","volume":"9","author":"Zunaidi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hussain, A., Jiang, W., Wang, X., Shahid, S., Saba, N., Ahmad, M., Dar, A., Masood, S.U., Imran, M., and Mustafa, A. (2022). Mechanistic impact of zinc deficiency in human development. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.717064"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102061","DOI":"10.1016\/j.toxrep.2025.102061","article-title":"Human Health Risks of Heavy Metals Contamination of a Water\u2013Soil\u2013Vegetables Farmland System in Toke Kutaye of West Shewa, Ethiopia","volume":"14","author":"Feyisa","year":"2025","journal-title":"Toxicol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107564","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2025.107564","article-title":"Migration Characteristics and Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Soil Vegetable System in a Typical Wastewater Irrigation Area","volume":"143","author":"Kong","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Food Compos. Anal."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"2170","article-title":"Heavy Metal Concentrations and Health Risk Assessment of Vegetables in the High-Risk Area of Atmospheric Deposition in Henan Province","volume":"27","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Plant Nutr. Fertil."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85102","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-023-28374-3","article-title":"A meta-analysis on the heavy metal uptake in Amaranthus species","volume":"30","author":"Filep","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"650","DOI":"10.1007\/s10661-018-7042-3","article-title":"Heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Cu, Zn, Ni, Co) in leafy vegetables collected from production sites: Their potential health risk to the general population in Shiraz, Iran","volume":"190","author":"Rahmdel","year":"2018","journal-title":"Environ. Monit. Assess."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/22\/11\/1614\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,25]],"date-time":"2025-10-25T04:21:49Z","timestamp":1761366109000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/22\/11\/1614"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,23]]},"references-count":68,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph22111614"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph22111614","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,23]]}}}