{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,28]],"date-time":"2025-11-28T05:22:45Z","timestamp":1764307365191,"version":"3.46.0"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,26]],"date-time":"2025-11-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764115200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology, FCT","award":["UID\/04045"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["UID\/04045"]}]},{"name":"FCT","award":["2022.14139.BD"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022.14139.BD"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Parents can influence both the behaviours and cardiovascular health of their school-aged children and adolescents. Understanding these effects is essential for developing targeted interventions. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to report existing research findings on the associations between parental lifestyle behaviours, socioeconomic status (SES), and educational level (EDL) and offspring\u2019s arterial stiffness (AS) and blood pressure (BP). Following PRISMA methodology, 19 observational studies were selected from the PubMed, Scopus, and EBSCO databases. Inclusion criteria focused on age range, children\u2019s AS and BP, parental behaviours, SES, and EDL. The STROBE checklist ensured the quality and reliability of the included studies. The meta-analysis included data from three or more studies. Higher levels of maternal physical activity were associated with lower AS in offspring. Parental smoking was associated with increased AS and higher BP in offspring. The meta-analyses showed that a lower EDL was associated with higher AS in offspring, 0.22 (95% CI: 0.15, 0.29; p &lt; 0.001). No significant associations were found between parental SES and offspring\u2019s systolic (p = 0.40) and diastolic (p = 0.50) BP. Parental behaviours shape offspring\u2019s cardiovascular health. Parental physical activity and higher EDL seem to be protective, while parental smoking is associated with adverse outcomes. Further research is needed to clarify these relationships.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph22121791","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,26]],"date-time":"2025-11-26T14:39:43Z","timestamp":1764167983000},"page":"1791","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Influence of Parental Behaviours and Socioeconomic Factors on Offspring\u2019s Precursors of Atherosclerosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1054-0831","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana Carvalhinho","family":"Silva","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Maia (UMaia), 4475-690 Maia, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4026-3804","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Filipe","family":"Maia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Maia (UMaia), 4475-690 Maia, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0007-5052-9710","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Francisco","family":"Estima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Maia (UMaia), 4475-690 Maia, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8335-6947","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anelise","family":"Gaya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate Program in Human Movement Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (PPGCMH-UFRGS), Porto Alegre 90690-200, RS, Brazil"},{"name":"School of Physical Education and Physiotherapy, Federal University of Pelotas (ESEF-UFPEL), Pelotas 96055-630, RS, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9917-9992","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diego","family":"Christofaro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Graduate Program in Movement Sciences, Department of Physical Education, School of Technology and Sciences, S\u00e3o Paulo State University (PPGCM-FCT-UNESP), Presidente Prudente 19060-900, SP, Brazil"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7571-9181","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge","family":"Mota","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Centre in Physical Activity, Health, and Leisure (CIAFEL), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto (FADE-UP), 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), 4050-091 Porto, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9717-4186","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00edsa","family":"Aires","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Centre in Physical Activity, Health, and Leisure (CIAFEL), Faculty of Sport, University of Porto (FADE-UP), 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"},{"name":"Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), 4050-091 Porto, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3930-7037","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Gustavo","family":"Silva","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Maia (UMaia), 4475-690 Maia, Portugal"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1307s","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/72.5.1307s","article-title":"Origin of atherosclerosis in childhood and adolescence","volume":"72","author":"McGill","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am. 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