{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,19]],"date-time":"2026-05-19T01:44:17Z","timestamp":1779155057604,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]],"date-time":"2025-12-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1767139200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Caregiving for visually impaired individuals imposes substantial psychological, social, and financial burdens. This study examined depressive symptoms among family caregivers in rural Limpopo, South Africa, and their associations with sociodemographic and socioeconomic factors. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 253 informal caregivers (response rate: 85.5%). Data on age, gender, marital status, education, employment, income, and socioeconomic status were collected. Depressive symptoms were assessed using the full 20-item Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), and associations were analysed using chi-square tests, Cramer\u2019s V, and logistic regression. Moderate-to-severe depressive symptoms were reported by 29.2% of caregivers, with 28.1% experiencing mild-to-moderate symptoms. Male caregivers were less likely to report minimal symptoms (OR = 0.3; 95% CI: 0.12\u20130.65). Caregivers aged 50\u201359 years were more likely to report lower depressive symptoms (OR = 1.3). Unmarried caregivers had higher odds of depressive symptoms compared with married caregivers (OR = 2.3). Education was protective: secondary education was associated with lower odds of severe symptoms, while primary education significantly increased risk (OR = 18.1). Lower-income caregivers tended to report higher depressive symptoms. Depressive symptoms among caregivers are influenced by gender, age, marital status, education, and income. Interventions such as psychosocial support, financial assistance, and community-based respite services are essential to reduce caregiver burden.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph23010057","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]],"date-time":"2025-12-31T16:34:23Z","timestamp":1767198863000},"page":"57","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Socioeconomic Factors and Depressive Symptoms Among Caregivers of Visually Impaired Individuals in South Africa"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9792-2057","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dimakatso Given","family":"Mashala","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Optometry, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Limpopo, Polokwane 0727, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3494-5937","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hlupheka Lawrence","family":"Sithole","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Optometry, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Limpopo, Polokwane 0727, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2843-4663","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eric","family":"Maimela","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Walter Sisulu University, Mthata 5117, South Africa"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1080\/13607863.2014.924477","article-title":"Predictors of psychological distress in caregivers of older persons with wet age-related macular degeneration","volume":"19","author":"Gopinath","year":"2015","journal-title":"Aging Ment. Health"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1007\/s10792-016-0296-2","article-title":"Depression and burden among the caregivers of visually impaired patients: A systematic review","volume":"37","author":"Kuriakose","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"National Alliance for Caregiving and AARP Public Policy Institute (2015). Caregiving in the United States 2015, AARP Public Policy Institute. Available online: https:\/\/www.aarp.org\/content\/dam\/aarp\/ppi\/2015\/caregiving-in-the-united-states-2015-report-revised.pdf."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Valiani, S. (2025, November 01). The Africa Care Economy Index [Internet]. Nairobi: The African Women\u2019s Development and Communication Network (FEMNET). Available online: https:\/\/www.undp.org."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dhjo.2022.101284","article-title":"Burden and depression among informal caregivers of visually impaired patients in Mexico","volume":"15","year":"2022","journal-title":"Disabil. Health J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2016.11.037","article-title":"The socioeconomic within-gender gap in informal caregiving among middle-aged women: Evidence from a Japanese nationwide survey","volume":"173","author":"Tokunaga","year":"2017","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.3928\/00989134-20180808-05","article-title":"Sociodemographic Disparities in Adult Child Informal Caregiving Intensity in the United States: Results from the New National Study of Caregiving","volume":"44","author":"Cook","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1017\/S0144686X18001423","article-title":"Combining employment and caregiving: How differing care intensities influence employment patterns among middle--aged women in Germany","volume":"40","author":"Kelle","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ageing Soc."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1572","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/glaa017","article-title":"Informal Caregiving, Chronic Physical Conditions, and Physical Multimorbidity in 48 Low- and Middle-Income Countries","volume":"75","author":"Jacob","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Li, J., Ding, L., Feng, Y., Tang, X., Sun, L., and Zhou, C. (2021). The effect of socioeconomic status on informal caregiving for parents among adult married females: Evidence from China. BMC Geriatr., 21.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12877-021-02094-0"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"igaa043","DOI":"10.1093\/geroni\/igaa043","article-title":"Caring for Older Adults With Vision Impairment and Dementia","volume":"4","author":"Varadaraj","year":"2020","journal-title":"Innov. Aging."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2011.07.038","article-title":"Burden and depression in the caregivers of blind patients in India","volume":"119","author":"Braich","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.5498\/wjp.v6.i1.7","article-title":"Gender differences in caregiving among family\u2014Caregivers of people with mental illnesses","volume":"6","author":"Sharma","year":"2016","journal-title":"World J. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1177\/073346489101000308","article-title":"The men who care: An analysis of male primary caregivers who care for frail elderly at home","volume":"10","author":"Chang","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Appl. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lopez-Anuarbe, M., and Kohli, P. (2019). Understanding Male Caregivers\u2019 Emotional, Financial, and Physical Burden in the United States. Healthcare, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/healthcare7020072"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schulz, R., and Eden, J. (2016). Families Caring for an Aging America, National Academies Press.","DOI":"10.17226\/23606"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Del-Pino-Casado, R., Rodr\u00edguez Cardosa, M., L\u00f3pez-Mart\u00ednez, C., and Orgeta, V. (2019). The association between subjective caregiver burden and depressive symptoms in carers of older relatives: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0217648"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2020.113281","article-title":"Psychosocial consequences of transitioning into informal caregiving in male and female caregivers: Findings from a population-based panel study","volume":"264","author":"Zwar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"545","DOI":"10.1177\/02646196211019064","article-title":"Interventions for quality of life and related outcomes among unpaid caregivers of older adults with visual impairments: A scoping review","volume":"40","author":"Hazzan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br. J. Vis. Impair."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1179","DOI":"10.2466\/pr0.1991.69.3f.1179","article-title":"Cross-cultural application of the Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale: A study of black South African students","volume":"69","author":"Pretorius","year":"1991","journal-title":"Psychol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1108\/IJSE-07-2020-0448","article-title":"Read, write, develop: The socioeconomic impact of literacy in South Africa","volume":"48","author":"Khumalo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Soc. Econ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baron, E.C., Davies, T., and Lund, C. (2017). Validation of the 10-item Centre for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D-10) in Zulu, Xhosa and Afrikaans populations in South Africa. BMC Psychiatry, 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-016-1178-x"},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2023, October 20). Caregiver Statistics, Demographics|FamilyCaregiverAlliance (n.d.). Available online: https:\/\/www.caregiver.org\/caregiver-statistics-demographics."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1186\/s40639-018-0046-6","article-title":"Caregiver attributes and socio-demographic determinants of caregiving burden in selected low-income communities in cape town, South Africa","volume":"5","author":"Yakubu","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Compassionate Health Care"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1016\/j.puhe.2015.05.016","article-title":"Caregiver profiles and determinants of caregiving burden in Ghana","volume":"129","author":"Sanuade","year":"2015","journal-title":"Public Health"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tuithof, M., ten Have, M., van Dorsselaer, S., and de Graaf, R. (2015). Emotional disorders among informal caregivers in the general population: Target groups for prevention. BMC Psychiatry, 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12888-015-0406-0"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1177\/0091415020920000","article-title":"The Influence of Caregiving on the Relation Between Marital Status and Psychological Health in a Grandparent Sample","volume":"92","author":"Provenzano","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Aging Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28980","DOI":"10.3402\/qhw.v10.28980","article-title":"Maladaptive cognitions and physical health of the caregivers of dementia: An interpretative phenomenological analysis","volume":"10","author":"Ali","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Qual. Stud. Health Well-Being"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1515\/ijdhd-2016-0041","article-title":"Determinants of caregiving burden and quality of life of informal caregivers of African stroke survivors: Literature review","volume":"16","author":"Badaru","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Disabil. Hum. Dev."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.4314\/mmj.v31i1.7","article-title":"Burden of family caregivers of ophthalmic patients in a university teaching hospital in south-west Nigeria","volume":"31","author":"Olowookere","year":"2019","journal-title":"Malawi Med. J."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"Witters, D. (2021, December 21). The Cost of Caregiving to the U.S. Economy. Gallup Bus J [Internet]. Available online: https:\/\/news.gallup.com\/businessjournal\/151049\/cost-caregiving-economy.aspx."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/23\/1\/57\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]],"date-time":"2025-12-31T16:35:18Z","timestamp":1767198918000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/23\/1\/57"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]]},"references-count":31,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph23010057"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph23010057","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]]}}}