{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,8]],"date-time":"2026-09-08T14:27:16Z","timestamp":1788877636869,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":59,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]],"date-time":"2026-03-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772841600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100006545","name":"National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["U54MD007600\/5318"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["U54MD007600\/5318"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100006545","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000057","name":"National Institute of General Medical Sciences","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R25GM061838"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R25GM061838"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000057","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Warfarin is one of the most used oral anticoagulants, even after the arrival of non-vitamin K oral anticoagulants. Warfarin has been implicated in approximately one-third of emergency hospitalizations for adverse drug events among older adults in national U.S. data. Warfarin dose has been shown to vary between patients with up to 10 times the standard dose. This variability is due to multiple factors such as age, gender, diet, body size, co-medications, and the genetic background of the patient, where the genetic background accounts for 50% of warfarin dose variability among Europeans. Sadly, these findings do not apply to Caribbean Hispanic populations such as Puerto Ricans due to them having an admixed genetic profile. In the field of pharmacogenomics (PGx), the utility of machine learning (ML) has been used to predict individual drug responses by analyzing complex genetic and clinical data, which helps personalize medicine by tailoring treatments to a patient\u2019s genetic makeup. Inclusion of ethno-specific variants has demonstrated improvement on the application of ML to a specific population. This study compares eight ML methods to predict warfarin sensitivity in Puerto Rican Caribbean Hispanics. This study is a secondary analysis of genetic and clinical data from 217 Puerto Rican patients treated with warfarin for thromboembolic disorders. After quality control filtering and exclusion of participant records with incomplete genetic and clinical data, 146 participants are retained for analysis. Data are divided into 65% and 35% to be used as training and test sets. Model performance is determined by comparing the precision and accuracy metrics, computed through the corresponding confusion matrixes. A gradient boosting classifier (GDB) achieves the highest overall accuracy (0.7500) and weighted precision of (0.7642); however, sensitivity for detecting warfarin-sensitive patients remains low. Feature importance analysis suggests that rs202201137 could contribute to model predictions, although overall detection of warfarin-sensitive individuals remains limited.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph23030337","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,9]],"date-time":"2026-03-09T11:06:52Z","timestamp":1773054412000},"page":"337","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Leveraging Machine Learning to Predict Warfarin Sensitivity in the Puerto Rican Population: A Pharmacogenomic Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5259-9452","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge E.","family":"Mart\u00ednez-Jim\u00e9nez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00936, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yolianne","family":"Ortega-Lamp\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Chemistry, Rio Piedras Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00925, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dylan","family":"Cedres-Rivera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Integrated Informatics Services Core (IIS), Research Center in Minority Institution (RCMI), Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00936, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2704-6741","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Frances","family":"Heredia-Negr\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Integrated Informatics Services Core (IIS), Research Center in Minority Institution (RCMI), Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00936, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2246-6744","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abiel","family":"Roche-Lima","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Integrated Informatics Services Core (IIS), Research Center in Minority Institution (RCMI), Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00936, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5955-3449","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge","family":"Duconge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacy Practice, School of Pharmacy, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00936, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1124\/pharmrev.122.000810","article-title":"Pharmacogenomics: Driving Personalized Medicine","volume":"75","author":"Sadee","year":"2023","journal-title":"Pharmacol. 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