{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,5]],"date-time":"2026-10-05T19:15:46Z","timestamp":1791227746084,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773187200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sarcopenia, characterized by the progressive loss of skeletal muscle mass, strength, and function, represents a major public health challenge in aging populations. This condition affects approximately 10\u201316% of community-dwelling older adults and is associated with increased risks of falls, frailty, functional decline, and mortality. The pathogenesis of sarcopenia involves chronic low-grade inflammation (inflammaging), oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and anabolic resistance. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), particularly eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), have emerged as promising nutritional interventions due to their anti-inflammatory properties and potential anabolic effects on skeletal muscle. This comprehensive review evaluates the current evidence on omega-3 PUFA supplementation for the attenuation and management of sarcopenia. Mechanistically, omega-3 PUFAs appear to enhance muscle protein synthesis through activation of the mTOR-p70S6K signaling pathway, reduce inflammation via specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs), improve mitochondrial bioenergetics, and attenuate muscle disuse atrophy. Clinical trials demonstrate that omega-3 supplementation, particularly at doses exceeding 2 g\/day of combined EPA and DHA, can increase thigh muscle volume, handgrip strength, and one-repetition maximum strength in older adults. When combined with resistance exercise training, the benefits appear more pronounced, especially in women. However, heterogeneity in study designs, intervention durations, dosages, and outcome measures has produced some conflicting results. Large-scale trials, such as the MAPT study, have shown null findings for long-term supplementation alone, suggesting that omega-3s may be most effective as part of multimodal interventions. The evidence also supports benefits in clinical populations at risk for muscle wasting, including cancer patients experiencing cachexia and individuals with neuromuscular disorders. Future research should focus on identifying optimal dosing strategies, understanding sex-specific responses, and elucidating the mechanisms underlying the synergistic effects of omega-3s with exercise. Overall, omega-3 PUFA supplementation represents a safe, accessible, and potentially effective nutritional strategy for attenuating muscle decline in aging and clinical populations, though its benefits appear most pronounced when combined with resistance exercise as part of a multimodal approach.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph23030355","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T14:43:18Z","timestamp":1773240198000},"page":"355","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["The Role of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on Sarcopenia and Aging Muscle"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-3713-315X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Behzad","family":"Varamini","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science, Technology and Health, Biola University, La Mirada, CA 90639, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jonah O.","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science, Technology and Health, Biola University, La Mirada, CA 90639, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Benjamin J.","family":"Merry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science, Technology and Health, Biola University, La Mirada, CA 90639, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Daniel J.","family":"Dau","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science, Technology and Health, Biola University, La Mirada, CA 90639, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2023.155533","article-title":"Epidemiology of sarcopenia: Prevalence, risk factors, and consequences","volume":"144","author":"Yuan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"afac220","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afac220","article-title":"Sarcopenia definition, diagnosis and treatment: Consensus is growing","volume":"51","author":"Sayer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afy169","article-title":"Sarcopenia: Revised European consensus on definition and diagnosis","volume":"48","author":"Bahat","year":"2019","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.medcli.2024.03.004","article-title":"Frailty, Sarcopenia and Osteoporosis","volume":"163","year":"2024","journal-title":"Med. Clin. (Barc.)"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cornish, S.M., Cordingley, D.M., Shaw, K.A., Forbes, S.C., Leonhardt, T., Bristol, A., Candow, D.G., and Chilibeck, P.D. (2022). Effects of Omega-3 Supplementation Alone and Combined with Resistance Exercise on Skeletal Muscle in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14112221"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105807","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2021.105807","article-title":"Skeletal muscle atrophy: From mechanisms to treatments","volume":"172","author":"Yin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1007\/s40520-016-0626-2","article-title":"Serum markers of inflammation and oxidative stress in sarcopenia","volume":"29","author":"Can","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aging Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lian, D., Chen, M.-M., Wu, H., Deng, S., and Hu, X. (2022). The Role of Oxidative Stress in Skeletal Muscle Myogenesis and Muscle Disease. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11040755"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2768","DOI":"10.1519\/JSC.0000000000000617","article-title":"Docosahexaenoic Acid Affects Markers of Inflammation and Muscle Damage After Eccentric Exercise","volume":"28","author":"DiLorenzo","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Strength Cond. Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e24898","DOI":"10.5812\/asjsm.24898","article-title":"Exercise-induced oxidative stress and dietary antioxidants","volume":"6","author":"Yavari","year":"2015","journal-title":"Asian J. Sports Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferri, E., Marzetti, E., Calvani, R., Picca, A., Cesari, M., and Arosio, B. (2020). Role of Age-Related Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Sarcopenia. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21155236"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2288","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2013.06.024","article-title":"Mitochondrial dysfunction and sarcopenia of aging: From signaling pathways to clinical trials","volume":"45","author":"Marzetti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1096","DOI":"10.18632\/aging.101210","article-title":"Influence of omega-3 fatty acids on skeletal muscle protein metabolism and mitochondrial bioenergetics in older adults","volume":"9","author":"Lalia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aging"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.04-2640fje","article-title":"Anabolic signaling deficits underlie amino acid resistance of wasting, aging muscle","volume":"19","author":"Cuthbertson","year":"2005","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.110.005611","article-title":"Dietary omega-3 fatty acid supplementation increases the rate of muscle protein synthesis in older adults: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"93","author":"Smith","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5483","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2009.178319","article-title":"Reduction of low grade inflammation restores blunting of postprandial muscle anabolism and limits sarcopenia in old rats","volume":"587","author":"Rieu","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"124","article-title":"Defining anabolic resistance: Implications for delivery of clinical care nutrition","volume":"24","author":"Morton","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cholewski, M., Tomczykowa, M., and Tomczyk, M. (2018). A Comprehensive Review of Chemistry, Sources and Bioavailability of Omega-3 Fatty Acids. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10111662"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1093\/intimm\/dxz001","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acid-derived mediators that control inflammation and tissue homeostasis","volume":"31","author":"Ishihara","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1007\/s10522-012-9385-4","article-title":"Effect of nutritional interventions and resistance exercise on aging muscle mass and strength","volume":"13","author":"Candow","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biogerontology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbalip.2014.08.010","article-title":"Marine omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes: Effects, mechanisms and clinical relevance","volume":"1851","author":"Calder","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1016\/j.maturitas.2019.11.007","article-title":"Nutritional strategies for maintaining muscle mass and strength from middle age to later life: A narrative review","volume":"132","author":"Sayer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Maturitas"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giacobbe, J., Benoiton, B., Zunszain, P., Pariante, C.M., and Borsini, A. (2020). The Anti-Inflammatory Role of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Metabolites in Pre-Clinical Models of Psychiatric, Neurodegenerative, and Neurological Disorders. Front. Psychiatry, 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.00122"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6773","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-021-01160-8","article-title":"Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids protect against inflammation through production of LOX and CYP450 lipid mediators: Relevance for major depression and for human hippocampal neurogenesis","volume":"26","author":"Borsini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2021.03.003","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acids ameliorate vascular inflammation: A rationale for their atheroprotective effects","volume":"324","author":"Pisaniello","year":"2021","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dupont, J., Wauters, E., Dedeyne, L., Vercauteren, L., Amini, N., Lapauw, L., Matthys, C., Verschueren, S., Tournoy, J., and Koppo, K. (2023). Are dietary intake and nutritional status of specific polyunsaturated fatty acids correlated with sarcopenia outcomes in community-dwelling older adults with sarcopenia?\u2014Exploratory results from ENHANce. BMC Geriatr., 23.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12877-023-04007-9"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.1007\/s40520-019-01146-1","article-title":"The role of omega-3 in the prevention and treatment of sarcopenia","volume":"31","author":"Dupont","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aging Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGlory, C., Calder, P.C., and Nunes, E.A. (2019). The Influence of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Skeletal Muscle Protein Turnover in Health, Disuse, and Disease. Front. Nutr., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2019.00144"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1341","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2013.267336","article-title":"Omega-3 supplementation alters mitochondrial membrane composition and respiration kinetics in human skeletal muscle","volume":"592","author":"Herbst","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1535","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2008.163816","article-title":"Rapamycin administration in humans blocks the contraction-induced increase in skeletal muscle protein synthesis","volume":"587","author":"Drummond","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecl.2012.04.012","article-title":"Multifaceted role of insulin-like growth factors and mammalian target of rapamycin in skeletal muscle","volume":"41","author":"Frost","year":"2012","journal-title":"Endocrinol. Metab. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12785","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.12785","article-title":"Effect of dietary n-3 PUFA supplementation on the muscle transcriptome in older adults","volume":"4","author":"Yoshino","year":"2016","journal-title":"Physiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Therdyothin, A., Phiphopthatsanee, N., and Isanejad, M. (2023). The Effect of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Sarcopenia: Mechanism of Action and Potential Efficacy. Mar. Drugs, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/md21070399"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dalle, S., Rossmeislova, L., and Koppo, K. (2017). The Role of Inflammation in Age-Related Sarcopenia. Front. Physiol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2017.01045"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1186\/s13054-024-04803-8","article-title":"Combining proteins with n-3 PUFAs (EPA + DHA) and their inflammation pro-resolution mediators for preservation of skeletal muscle mass","volume":"28","author":"Blaauw","year":"2024","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805172","DOI":"10.1155\/2015\/805172","article-title":"Role of Inflammation in Muscle Homeostasis and Myogenesis","volume":"2015","author":"Costamagna","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1678","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbabio.2016.07.008","article-title":"Mitochondrial involvement in skeletal muscle insulin resistance: A case of imbalanced bioenergetics","volume":"1857","author":"Affourtit","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4586","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.201801857RRR","article-title":"Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation attenuates skeletal muscle disuse atrophy during two weeks of unilateral leg immobilization in healthy young women","volume":"33","author":"McGlory","year":"2019","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1121","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2017.08.016","article-title":"Does nutrition play a role in the prevention and management of sarcopenia?","volume":"37","author":"Robinson","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1249\/FIT.0000000000000134","article-title":"Build Muscle, Improve Health","volume":"19","author":"Westcott","year":"2015","journal-title":"ACSM\u2019s Health Fit. J."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1012","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/58.11.M1012","article-title":"Sarcopenia: Effects on body composition and function","volume":"58","author":"Roubenoff","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbspin.2018.08.001","article-title":"Sarcopenia","volume":"86","author":"Tournadre","year":"2019","journal-title":"Jt. Bone Spine"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.114.105833","article-title":"Fish oil-derived n-3 PUFA therapy increases muscle mass and function in healthy older adults","volume":"102","author":"Smith","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"afac274","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afac274","article-title":"Effects of fish oil-derived n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid on body composition, muscle strength and physical performance in older people: A secondary analysis of a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial","volume":"51","author":"Xu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1775","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.25709","article-title":"Nutritional intervention with fish oil provides a benefit over standard of care for weight and skeletal muscle mass in patients with nonsmall cell lung cancer receiving chemotherapy","volume":"117","author":"Murphy","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2087","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2018.10.017","article-title":"Evidence of muscle loss delay and improvement of hyperinsulinemia and insulin resistance in Duchenne muscular dystrophy supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids: A randomized study","volume":"38","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1411","DOI":"10.1093\/ajcn\/nqaa449","article-title":"Does supplementation with leucine-enriched protein alone and in combination with fish-oil-derived n-3 PUFA affect muscle mass, strength, physical performance, and muscle protein synthesis in well-nourished older adults?","volume":"113","author":"Murphy","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rondanelli, M., Gasparri, C., Barrile, G.C., Battaglia, S., Cavioni, A., Giusti, R., Mansueto, F., Moroni, A., Nannipieri, F., and Patelli, Z. (2022). Effectiveness of a Novel Food Composed of Leucine, Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Probiotic Lactobacillus paracasei PS23 for the Treatment of Sarcopenia in Elderly Subjects: A 2-Month Randomized Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trial. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14214566"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3774","DOI":"10.1002\/cncr.25933","article-title":"Supplementation with fish oil increases first-line chemotherapy efficacy in patients with advanced nonsmall cell lung cancer","volume":"117","author":"Murphy","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cancer"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, Y.H., Chiu, W.C., Hsu, Y.P., Lo, Y.L., and Wang, Y.H. (2020). Effects of Omega-3 Fatty Acids on Muscle Mass, Muscle Strength and Muscle Performance among the Elderly: A Meta-Analysis. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12123739"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnesp.2021.10.011","article-title":"The effect of long chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on muscle mass and function in sarcopenia: A scoping systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"46","author":"Bird","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr. ESPEN"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/63.8.829","article-title":"Sarcopenia \u2260 dynapenia","volume":"63","author":"Clark","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/61.10.1059","article-title":"The loss of skeletal muscle strength, mass, and quality in older adults: The health, aging and body composition study","volume":"61","author":"Goodpaster","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kunz, H.E., Michie, K.L., Gries, K.J., Zhang, X., Ryan, Z.C., and Lanza, I.R. (2022). A Randomized Trial of the Effects of Dietary n3-PUFAs on Skeletal Muscle Function and Acute Exercise Response in Healthy Older Adults. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14173537"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.111.021915","article-title":"Fish-oil supplementation enhances the effects of strength training in elderly women","volume":"95","author":"Rodacki","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/gly130","article-title":"Resistance Training Alone or Combined With N-3 PUFA-Rich Diet in Older Women: Effects on Muscle Fiber Hypertrophy","volume":"74","author":"Strandberg","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.3945\/ajcn.116.140780","article-title":"Sex differences in the effect of fish-oil supplementation on the adaptive response to resistance exercise training in older people: A randomized controlled trial","volume":"105","author":"Sibson","year":"2017","journal-title":"Am. J. Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnesp.2021.09.729","article-title":"Omega-3 supplementation during unilateral resistance exercise training in older women: A within subject and double-blind placebo-controlled trial","volume":"46","author":"Brook","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr. ESPEN"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rolland, Y., Barreto, P.S., Maltais, M., Guyonnet, S., Cantet, C., Andrieu, S., and Vellas, B. (2019). Effect of Long-Term Omega 3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Supplementation with or without Multidomain Lifestyle Intervention on Muscle Strength in Older Adults: Secondary Analysis of the Multidomain Alzheimer Preventive Trial (MAPT). Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11081931"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1093\/gerona\/glaa309","article-title":"Omega-3 Supplementation Improves Isometric Strength But Not Muscle Anabolic and Catabolic Signaling in Response to Resistance Exercise in Healthy Older Adults","volume":"76","author":"Dalle","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Gerontol. A Biol. Sci. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2022.04.007","article-title":"The effect of krill oil supplementation on skeletal muscle function and size in older adults: A randomised controlled trial","volume":"41","author":"Alkhedhairi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1007\/s12603-012-0415-3","article-title":"The impact of supplemental n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and dietary antioxidants on physical performance in postmenopausal women","volume":"17","author":"Kleppinger","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Nutr. Health Aging"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3073","DOI":"10.1007\/s40520-022-02250-5","article-title":"Fish oil administration combined with resistance exercise training improves strength, resting metabolic rate, and inflammation in older adults","volume":"34","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"Aging Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alves, N.M.D.C., Pfrimer, K., Santos, P.C., de Freitas, E.C., Neves, T., Pessini, R.A., Junqueira-Franco, M.V.M., Nogueira-Barbosa, M.H., Greig, C.A., and Ferriolli, E. (2022). Randomised Controlled Trial of Fish Oil Supplementation on Responsiveness to Resistance Exercise Training in Sarcopenic Older Women. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14142844"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e131","DOI":"10.1093\/nutrit\/nuae055","article-title":"The effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on muscle and whole-body protein synthesis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"83","author":"Therdyothin","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.advnut.2022.11.005","article-title":"The Influence of n-3PUFA Supplementation on Muscle Strength, Mass, and Function: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"14","author":"Esteves","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102014","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2023.102014","article-title":"Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in sarcopenia management: A network meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials","volume":"90","author":"Tseng","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ageing Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Timraz, M., Binmahfoz, A., Quinn, T.J., Combet, E., and Gray, S.R. (2023). The Effect of Long Chain n-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation on Muscle Strength in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.26226\/m.654909d29113b20019d9b50b"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1123\/ijsnem.2013-0081","article-title":"Fish oil supplementation reduces markers of oxidative stress but not muscle soreness after eccentric exercise","volume":"24","author":"Gray","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Sport Nutr. Exerc. Metab."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-511X-8-36","article-title":"Effect of eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acid on resting and exercise-induced inflammatory and oxidative stress biomarkers: A randomized, placebo controlled, cross-over study","volume":"8","author":"Bloomer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Lipids Health Dis."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1017\/S0029665119000922","article-title":"Long-chain n-3 fatty acids as an essential link between musculoskeletal and cardio-metabolic health in older adults","volume":"79","author":"Witard","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. Nutr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gerling, C.J., Mukai, K., Chabowski, A., Heigenhauser, G.J.F., Holloway, G.P., Spriet, L.L., and Jannas-Vela, S. (2019). Incorporation of Omega-3 Fatty Acids Into Human Skeletal Muscle Sarcolemmal and Mitochondrial Membranes Following 12 Weeks of Fish Oil Supplementation. Front. Physiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2019.00348"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dewey, A., Baughan, C., Dean, T., Higgins, B., and Johnson, I. (2007). Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, an omega-3 fatty acid from fish oils) for the treatment of cancer cachexia. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., CD004597.","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD004597.pub2"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/23\/3\/355\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T14:45:40Z","timestamp":1773240340000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/23\/3\/355"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]]},"references-count":73,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph23030355"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph23030355","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]]}}}