{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,3]],"date-time":"2026-09-03T05:33:47Z","timestamp":1788413627299,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]],"date-time":"2026-06-08T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780876800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Draper Hills Charitable Foundation"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Growing pesticide use is linked to increased health risks for farmers across Africa, due to factors such as improper handling, insufficient knowledge, and lack of resources. To better understand these risk factors in Rwanda, where the majority of the population and most women are farmers, we held focus group discussions (FGDs) with 31 Sector Agricultural Officers (SAOs) and Sector Animal Resources Officers (SAROs) in five districts of Eastern Province. Among their views on this topic, we identified four core themes among the FGDs of (1) interconnected challenges, (2) shared exposure and health risks, (3) gender differences in risk behavior, and (4) transmission of knowledge, in addition to six pesticides\u2014abamectin, cypermethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, profenofos, mancozeb, and metalaxyl\u2014most commonly used across all districts. Our findings suggest that Rwandan farmers may overestimate variety in the pesticides that they use and thus potentially contribute to problems such as pest resistance, underlining a critical need for integrated, locally informed approaches to pesticide management. This study also demonstrates the valuable role of extension officers in highlighting challenges related to pesticide use in farming communities and advancing research that engages with them.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph23060771","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,9]],"date-time":"2026-06-09T00:43:54Z","timestamp":1780965834000},"page":"771","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Pesticide Use and Safety Behaviors Among Farmers in Rwanda\u2019s Eastern Province: Perspectives from Sector Officers on Drivers, Factors, and Gender Differences"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7805-0903","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emmanuel","family":"Irimaso","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Rwanda, Nyagatare P.O. Box 57, Rwanda"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-8145-8235","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Concorde","family":"Rwibutso","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rwanda Biomedical Centre, Kigali P.O. Box 7162, Rwanda"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-0157-5906","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Therese","family":"Nyirahabimana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Rwanda Biosolution, Kigali, Rwanda"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2478-2292","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cynthia","family":"Curl","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public and Population Health, Boise State University, Boise, ID 83706, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4820-0576","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephanie","family":"Mitchell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for One Health Research, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2152-4017","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Liberata","family":"Mukamana","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Economics, University of Rwanda, Kigali P.O. Box 4285, Rwanda"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7003-5258","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dawn","family":"Zimmerman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Disease, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, CT 06510, USA"},{"name":"Department of Entomology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4168-0578","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sabrina B.","family":"Sholts","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1002\/fes3.108","article-title":"Pesticides, environment, and food safety","volume":"6","author":"Carvalho","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Energy Secur."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1987","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2010.0390","article-title":"The development, regulation and use of biopesticides for integrated pest management","volume":"366","author":"Chandler","year":"2011","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R Soc. Lond. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Daraban, G.M., Hlihor, R.-M., and Suteu, D. (2023). Pesticides vs. biopesticides: From pest management to toxicity and impacts on the environment and human health. Toxics, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics11120983"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1360","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-025-56732-x","article-title":"Pesticides have negative effects on non-target organisms","volume":"16","author":"Wan","year":"2025","journal-title":"Nat. Comm."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Damalas, C.A., and Koutroubas, S.D. (2016). Farmers\u2019 exposure to pesticides: Toxicity types and ways of prevention. Toxics, 4.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxics4010001"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/s40572-020-00266-5","article-title":"Synthetic pesticides and health in vulnerable populations: Agricultural workers","volume":"7","author":"Curl","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Environ. Health Rep."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"FAO (2024). Pesticides Use and Trade\u20141990\u20132022, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). FAOSTAT Analytical Briefs, No. 89."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1327","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cropro.2008.04.006","article-title":"Trends in pesticide use and drivers for safer pest management in four African countries","volume":"27","author":"Williamson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Crop Prot."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e15173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2023.e15173","article-title":"Widespread use of toxic agrochemicals and pesticides for agricultural products storage in Africa and developing countries: Possible panacea for ecotoxicology and health implications","volume":"9","author":"Anaduaka","year":"2023","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mengistu, D.A., Geremew, A., and Tessema, R.A. (2024). Pesticide safety practice and its public health risk in African regions: Systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health, 24.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-024-19764-4"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ndayisaba, F., Guo, H., Bao, A., Guo, H., Karamage, F., and Kayiranga, A. (2016). Understanding the spatial temporal vegetation dynamics in Rwanda. Remote Sens., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs8020129"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okonya, J.S., Petsakos, A., Suarez, V., Nduwayezu, A., Kantungeko, D., Blomme, G., Legg, J.P., and Kroschel, J. (2019). Pesticide use practices in root, tuber, and banana crops by smallholder farmers in Rwanda and Burundi. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16030400"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/s12571-018-0878-0","article-title":"Status quo of chemical weed control in rice in sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"11","author":"Rodenburg","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Secur."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rohlman, D.S., Davis, J.W., Ismail, A., Rasoul, G.M.A., Hendy, O., Olson, J.R., and Bonner, M.R. (2020). Risk perception and behavior in Egyptian adolescent pesticide applicators: An intervention study. BMC Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12889-020-08801-7"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"R\u00f6\u00f6sli, M., Fuhrimann, S., Atuhaire, A., Rother, H.-A., Dabrowski, J., Eskenazi, B., J\u00f8rs, E., Jepson, P.C., London, L., and Naidoo, S. (2022). Interventions to reduce pesticide exposure from the agricultural sector in Africa: A workshop report. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19158973"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fuhrimann, S., Wan, C., Blouzard, E., Veludo, A., Holtman, Z., Chetty-Mhlanga, S., Dalvie, M.A., Atuhaire, A., Kromhout, H., and R\u00f6\u00f6sli, M. (2021). Pesticide research on environmental and human exposure and risks in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic literature review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19010259"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ndayambaje, B., Amuguni, H., Coffin-Schmitt, J., Sibo, N., Ntawubizi, M., and VanWormer, E. (2019). Pesticide application practices and knowledge among small-scale local rice growers and communities in Rwanda: A cross-sectional study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16234770"},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"1","article-title":"Small scale farmers\u2019 knowledge on grain losses from bean bruchid, pesticides safe use and implication on food security and safety in Huye District, Rwanda","volume":"1","author":"Umubyeyi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Rwanda J."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"963","article-title":"Assessment of the pesticides utilization and the pesticide residues presence in fresh and tomato products for the tomato supply chain in Rwanda","volume":"13","author":"Antoine","year":"2022","journal-title":"Food Nutr. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140015","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.140015","article-title":"Understanding smallholders\u2019 responses to fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) invasion: Evidence from five African countries","volume":"740","author":"Tambo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102073","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodpol.2021.102073","article-title":"Can plant clinics enhance judicious use of pesticides? Evidence from Rwanda and Zambia","volume":"101","author":"Tambo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Policy"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e414","DOI":"10.1002\/fes3.414","article-title":"Sustainable management of fall armyworm in smallholder farming: The role of a multi-channel information campaign in Rwanda","volume":"12","author":"Tambo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Energy Secur."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwizera, E., Rumbeiha, W.K., Nishimwe, K., and Nziza, J. (2024). A survey to document toxic hazards in the zone surrounding volcanoes national park, a habitat for mountain gorillas, an endangered wildlife species in Rwanda. Front. Vet. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2023.1320162"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2021.100325","article-title":"The One Health landscape in Sub-Saharan African countries","volume":"13","author":"Fasina","year":"2021","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12366","DOI":"10.3389\/bjbs.2024.12366","article-title":"The One Health Concept","volume":"81","author":"Pitt","year":"2024","journal-title":"Br. J. BioMed Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Rwanda Agriculture and Animal Resources Development Board (RAB) (2025, November 10). Rwanda Agriculture and Animal Resources Development Board, Available online: https:\/\/www.rab.gov.rw\/."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"National Agricultural Export Development Board (NAEB) (2025, November 10). National Agricultural Export Development Board, Available online: https:\/\/www.naeb.gov.rw\/."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Republic of Rwanda (2025, November 17). The Government of Rwanda 2025, Available online: https:\/\/www.gov.rw\/overview."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hegarty-Craver, M., Polly, J., O\u2019neil, M., Ujeneza, N., Rineer, J., Beach, R.H., Lapidus, D., and Temple, D.S. (2020). Remote crop mapping at scale: Using satellite imagery and UAV-acquired data as ground truth. Remote Sens., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/rs12121984"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR) (2024). Seasonal Agricultural Survey, Season A 2024 Report."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1483","DOI":"10.1177\/1049732318821692","article-title":"What influences saturation? Estimating sample sizes in focus group research","volume":"29","author":"Hennink","year":"2019","journal-title":"Qual. Health Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.soc.22.1.129","article-title":"Focus groups","volume":"22","author":"Morgan","year":"1996","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Sociol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morgan, D.L. (1997). Focus Groups as Qualitative Research, SAGE Publications. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.4135\/9781412984287"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Flick, U. (2022). Designing focus groups. The Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research Design, Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin.","DOI":"10.4135\/9781036243371"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1093\/fampra\/12.4.474","article-title":"Critical factors in the determination of focus group size","volume":"12","author":"Tang","year":"1995","journal-title":"Fam. Pract."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"1","article-title":"Snowball sampling","volume":"14","author":"Parker","year":"2019","journal-title":"SAGE Res. Methods Found."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.25082\/AERE.2025.01.001","article-title":"Methods of data collection in qualitative research: Interviews, focus groups, observations, and document analysis","volume":"6","author":"Chand","year":"2025","journal-title":"Adv. Educ. Res. Eval."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1191\/1478088706qp063oa","article-title":"Using thematic analysis in psychology","volume":"3","author":"Braun","year":"2006","journal-title":"Qual. Res. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"3352","article-title":"Doing a thematic analysis: A practical, step-by-step guide for learning and teaching scholars","volume":"9","author":"Maguire","year":"2017","journal-title":"All. Irel. J. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Nziza, A.-R. (2020). IPEN Toxics-Free SDGs Campaign Highly Hazardous Pesticides (HHPs) Rwanda Situation Report, IPEN."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2020). WHO Recommended Classification of Pesticides by Hazard and Guidelines to Classification, 2019 Edition, World Health Organization."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2026, May 21). Law on Governing of Agrochemicals, Law N\u00b0 30\/2012 of 1 August 2012, Official Gazette of the Republic of Rwanda (2012). Available online: https:\/\/rwandalii.org\/akn\/rw\/act\/law\/2012\/30\/eng@2012-09-10."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"World Bank (2025). Population density (people per sq. km of land area). Food and Agriculture Organization and World Bank Population Estimates, World Bank. Available online: https:\/\/data.worldbank.org\/indicator\/EN.POP.DNST."},{"key":"ref_44","unstructured":"National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR) (2023). Fifth Rwanda Population and Housing Census, Main Indicators Report."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Austin, K.G., Beach, R.H., Lapidus, D., Salem, M.E., Taylor, N.J., Knudsen, M., and Ujeneza, N. (2020). Impacts of climate change on the potential productivity of eleven staple crops in Rwanda. Sustainability, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/su12104116"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR) (2013). Seasonal Agricultural Survey 2013, Version 2."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR) (2024). Seasonal Agricultural Survey, Season B Annual Report, December 2024, NISR."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e8793","DOI":"10.1002\/joc.8793","article-title":"Trends and Variability of Temperatures in the Eastern Province of Rwanda","volume":"45","author":"Rwema","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Climatol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-04369-3","article-title":"Potential distribution of fall armyworm in Africa and beyond, considering climate change and irrigation patterns","volume":"12","author":"Timilsena","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goergen, G., Kumar, P.L., Sankung, S.B., Togola, A., and Tam\u00f2, M. (2016). First report of outbreaks of the fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda (JE Smith) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae), a new alien invasive pest in West and Central Africa. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0165632"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources (MINAGRI) (2025, November 10). Government Intensifies Efforts to Contain Fall Armyworms [Press Release], Available online: https:\/\/www.minagri.gov.rw\/updates\/news-details\/government-intensifies-efforts-to-contain-fall-armyworms."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Niassy, S., Ekesi, S., Migiro, L., and Otieno, W. (2020). Farmers\u2019 perceptions and preferences on pesticide use in the management of fall armyworm in Rwanda. Sustainable Management of Invasive Pests in Africa, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-41083-4"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Niassy, S., Ekesi, S., Migiro, L., and Otieno, W. (2020). Outbreak of fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) and its impact in Rwanda agriculture production. Sustainable Management of Invasive Pests in Africa, Springer Nature. Sustainability in Plant and Crop Protection.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-41083-4"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e56","DOI":"10.1016\/S2542-5196(19)30266-9","article-title":"Selection of pesticides to reduce human and environmental health risks: A global guideline and minimum pesticides list","volume":"4","author":"Jepson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Planet. Health"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"746","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.4776","article-title":"Characterization of field-evolved resistance to Bacillus thuringiensis-derived Cry1F \u03b4-endotoxin in Spodoptera frugiperda populations from Argentina","volume":"74","author":"Chandrasena","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"792","DOI":"10.1093\/jee\/toy372","article-title":"Field-evolved resistance of the fall armyworm (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) to synthetic insecticides in Puerto Rico and Mexico","volume":"112","author":"Blanco","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Econ. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1682","DOI":"10.1111\/1755-0998.13219","article-title":"Genetic structure and insecticide resistance characteristics of fall armyworm populations invading China","volume":"20","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Ecol. Resour."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carvalho, R.A., Omoto, C., Field, L.M., Williamson, M.S., and Bass, C. (2013). Investigating the molecular mechanisms of organophosphate and pyrethroid resistance in the fall armyworm Spodoptera frugiperda. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0062268"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.4103\/0971-6580.155386","article-title":"Conservative care in successful treatment of abamectin poisoning","volume":"21","author":"Aminiahidashti","year":"2014","journal-title":"Toxicol. Int."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guo, L., Zhou, Z., Dai, P., Zhang, T., Genjiafu, A., Jian, T., Wen, Z., Zhao, L., Li, Q., and Jian, X. (2023). Case report: Occupational acute poisoning caused by the accidental release of lambda-cyhalothrin. Front. Environ. Health, 2.","DOI":"10.3389\/fenvh.2023.1159304"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1478","DOI":"10.2134\/jeq2016.03.0100","article-title":"Profenofos, an acetylcholinesterase-inhibiting organophosphorus pesticide: A short review of its usage, toxicity, and biodegradation","volume":"45","author":"Kushwaha","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Environ. Qual."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"2192","article-title":"Adverse effects of cypermethrin: A review","volume":"9","author":"Priyanka","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Technol. Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"86","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2019.04.012","article-title":"Mancozeb impaired male fertility in rabbits with trials of glutathione detoxification","volume":"105","author":"Elsharkawy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"798","DOI":"10.1177\/0748233718778397","article-title":"Mancozeb induces testicular dysfunction through oxidative stress and apoptosis: Protective role of N-acetylcysteine antioxidant","volume":"34","author":"Mandegary","year":"2018","journal-title":"Toxicol. Ind. Health"},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"European Union (EU) (2020). Mancozeb Non-Renewal and MRL Review."},{"key":"ref_66","unstructured":"Rwanda Environment Management Authority (REMA) (2011). The National Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Framework for Rwanda, Final Draft Report."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107359","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cropro.2025.107359","article-title":"Development of viable Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies to control fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) on maize","volume":"197","author":"Sanon","year":"2025","journal-title":"Crop Prot."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1186\/s12302-022-00638-8","article-title":"Women in agriculture: Pathways of pesticide exposure, potential health risks and vulnerability in sub-Saharan Africa","volume":"34","author":"Freyer","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Eur."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alshalati, L.M.J. (2021). Limited knowledge and unsafe practices in usage of pesticides and the associated toxicity symptoms among farmers in Tullo and Finchawa rural kebeles, Hawassa City, Sidama Regional State, Southern Ethiopia. Emerging Contaminants, IntechOpen.","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.96093"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1177\/0971852414529483","article-title":"Embodied livelihoods and tomato farmers\u2019 gendered experience of pesticides in Tuobodom, Ghana","volume":"18","author":"Zseleczky","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gend. Technol. Dev."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.4236\/odem.2015.32004","article-title":"Health impact of pesticides on residents and horticultural workers in the Lake Naivasha Region, Kenya","volume":"3","author":"Tsimbiri","year":"2015","journal-title":"Occupat Dis. Environ. Med."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.1007\/s10460-015-9590-2","article-title":"Mapping gendered pest management knowledge, practices, and pesticide exposure pathways in Ghana and Mali","volume":"32","author":"Christie","year":"2015","journal-title":"Agric. Hum. Values"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envint.2016.05.034","article-title":"An assessment of the impacts of pesticide use on the environment and health of rice farmers in Sierra Leone","volume":"94","author":"Sankoh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Environ. Int."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.29024\/aogh.2303","article-title":"Health symptoms associated with pesticides exposure among flower and onion pesticide applicators in Arusha region","volume":"84","author":"Mwabulambo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ann. Glob. Health"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1540093","DOI":"10.1080\/23311932.2018.1540093","article-title":"Gender and pest management: Constraints to integrated pest management uptake among smallholder coffee farmers in Uganda","volume":"4","author":"Ochago","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cogent Food Agric."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"World Economic Forum (2025). Global Gender Gap Report 2025, World Economic Forum."},{"key":"ref_77","unstructured":"Gahigi, M. (2025). Rwanda Bees Being Wiped out by Pesticides, France 24."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1163\/22244662-bja10043","article-title":"The effects of some insecticides on honeybees (Apis mellifera)","volume":"69","author":"Saruhan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Isr. J. Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100408","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envc.2021.100408","article-title":"Various routes of formulated insecticide mixture whole-body acute contact toxicity to honey bees (Apis mellifera)","volume":"6","author":"Belsky","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ. Chall."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"s372","DOI":"10.1017\/S1751731118001349","article-title":"Livestock production increasingly influences wildlife across the globe","volume":"12","author":"Gordon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Animal"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1177\/00333549111260S108","article-title":"Animal sentinels for environmental and public health","volume":"126","author":"Reif","year":"2011","journal-title":"Public Health Rep."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2020.144386","article-title":"Intensive livestock farming as a major determinant of the exposure to anticoagulant rodenticides in raptors of the Canary Islands (Spain)","volume":"768","author":"Zumbado","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2885.2007.00836.x","article-title":"Pesticides and the intoxication of wild animals","volume":"30","author":"Berny","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"420","article-title":"Effects of chronic pesticide stress on wildlife populations in complex landscapes: Processes at multiple scales","volume":"15","author":"Maurer","year":"1996","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20200559","DOI":"10.1098\/rsbl.2020.0559","article-title":"Landscape-level toxicant exposure mediates infection impacts on wildlife populations","volume":"16","author":"Altizer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol. Lett."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/23\/6\/771\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,9]],"date-time":"2026-06-09T00:48:01Z","timestamp":1780966081000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1660-4601\/23\/6\/771"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]]},"references-count":85,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ijerph23060771"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijerph23060771","relation":{},"ISSN":["1660-4601"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1660-4601","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]]}}}