{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T03:26:07Z","timestamp":1791257167223,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":134,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,16]],"date-time":"2011-03-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1300233600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJERPH"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Tobacco smoking during pregnancy remains common, especially in indigenous communities, and likely contributes to respiratory illness in exposed offspring. It is now well established that components of tobacco smoke, notably nicotine, can affect multiple organs in the fetus and newborn, potentially with life-long consequences. Recent studies have shown that nicotine can permanently affect the developing lung such that its final structure and function are adversely affected; these changes can increase the risk of respiratory illness and accelerate the decline in lung function with age. In this review we discuss the impact of maternal smoking on the lungs and consider the evidence that smoking can have life-long, programming consequences for exposed offspring. Exposure to maternal tobacco smoking and nicotine intake during pregnancy and lactation changes the genetic program that controls the development and aging of the lungs of the offspring. Changes in the conducting airways and alveoli reduce lung function in exposed offspring, rendering the lungs more susceptible to obstructive lung disease and accelerating lung aging. Although it is generally accepted that prevention of maternal smoking during pregnancy and lactation is essential, current knowledge of the effects of nicotine on lung development does not support the use of nicotine replacement therapy in this group.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph8030875","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,16]],"date-time":"2011-03-16T07:24:32Z","timestamp":1300260272000},"page":"875-898","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":117,"title":["Life-long Programming Implications of Exposure to Tobacco Smoking and Nicotine Before and Soon After Birth: Evidence for Altered Lung Development"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Gert S.","family":"Maritz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biosciences, University of the Western Cape, Bellville 7535, South Africa"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Richard","family":"Harding","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Anatomy and Developmental Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"489","DOI":"10.1177\/0960327109354440","article-title":"Indicators of oxidative stress in weanling and pubertal rats following exposure to nicotine via milk","volume":"29","author":"Halima","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hum. 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