{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,17]],"date-time":"2026-04-17T23:43:16Z","timestamp":1776469396971,"version":"3.51.2"},"reference-count":88,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,14]],"date-time":"2025-03-14T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1741910400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["42171438"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42171438"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["21ZD11"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21ZD11"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["2021YFF0900901"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFF0900901"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["K2023064"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K2023064"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["K2024022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K2024022"]}]},{"name":"Major Project of the National Social Science Foundation of China \u201cTheoretical and Practical Innovation of Art Theory Evaluation System\u201d","award":["42171438"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42171438"]}]},{"name":"Major Project of the National Social Science Foundation of China \u201cTheoretical and Practical Innovation of Art Theory Evaluation System\u201d","award":["21ZD11"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21ZD11"]}]},{"name":"Major Project of the National Social Science Foundation of China \u201cTheoretical and Practical Innovation of Art Theory Evaluation System\u201d","award":["2021YFF0900901"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFF0900901"]}]},{"name":"Major Project of the National Social Science Foundation of China \u201cTheoretical and Practical Innovation of Art Theory Evaluation System\u201d","award":["K2023064"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K2023064"]}]},{"name":"Major Project of the National Social Science Foundation of China \u201cTheoretical and Practical Innovation of Art Theory Evaluation System\u201d","award":["K2024022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K2024022"]}]},{"name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","award":["42171438"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42171438"]}]},{"name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","award":["21ZD11"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21ZD11"]}]},{"name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","award":["2021YFF0900901"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFF0900901"]}]},{"name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","award":["K2023064"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K2023064"]}]},{"name":"National Key R&amp;D Program of China","award":["K2024022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K2024022"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Foundation of Wuhan Institute of Technology","award":["42171438"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["42171438"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Foundation of Wuhan Institute of Technology","award":["21ZD11"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21ZD11"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Foundation of Wuhan Institute of Technology","award":["2021YFF0900901"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2021YFF0900901"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Foundation of Wuhan Institute of Technology","award":["K2023064"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K2023064"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Foundation of Wuhan Institute of Technology","award":["K2024022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K2024022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJGI"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Mobile map landmark symbols are pivotal in conveying spatial semantics and enhancing users\u2019 perception of digital maps. This study employs a three-factor hybrid experimental design to investigate the effects of different landmark symbol types and their color associations with annotations on search performance using eye tracking methods. Utilizing the Tobii X2-60 eye tracker, 40 participants engaged in a visual search task across three symbol types (icons, indexes, and symbols) and two color conditions (consistent and inconsistent). This study also examines the impact of gender on search performance. The results indicate that INDEX, emphasizing the landmarks\u2019 functions and key features, most effectively improve search accuracy and efficiency while demanding the least cognitive effort. In contrast, SYMBOL type characters, with clear semantics and minimal information, require less visual attention, facilitating faster preliminary processing. Additionally, cognitive style differences between genders affect these symbols\u2019 effectiveness in visual searches. A careful selection of symbol types and color combinations can significantly enhance user interaction with mobile maps.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi14030129","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,14]],"date-time":"2025-03-14T07:02:16Z","timestamp":1741935736000},"page":"129","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["The Influence of the Relationship Between Landmark Symbol Types, Annotations, and Colors on Search Performance in Mobile Maps Based on Eye Tracking"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5931-7692","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hao","family":"Fang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Art & Design, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430205, China"},{"name":"Village Culture and Human Settlements Research Center, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1389-2904","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hongyun","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Art & Design, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430205, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Zhangtong","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Art, Wuhan Business University, Wuhan 430056, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5306-1163","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nai","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Geography and Information Engineering, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan 430074, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Rui","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hubei Province Equipment Digital Technology Research Institute, Wuhan 430056, China"},{"name":"School of Information Engineering, Wuhan Business University, Wuhan 430056, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Fen","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Art & Design, Wuhan Institute of Technology, Wuhan 430205, China"},{"name":"Hubei Province Equipment Digital Technology Research Institute, Wuhan 430056, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.14714\/CP24.757","article-title":"How Maps Work: Representation, Visualization, and Design","volume":"24","author":"Nelson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Cartogr. Perspect."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kray, C., Elting, C., Laakso, K., and Coors, V. (2003, January 12\u201315). Presenting route instructions on mobile devices. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces, Miami, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/604050.604066"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.5194\/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W7-83-2017","article-title":"The Influence of Spatial Familiarity on the Landmark Salience Sensibility in Pedestrian Navigation Environment","volume":"42","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote. Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"832","DOI":"10.1080\/14616688.2019.1696883","article-title":"Visitors\u2019 wayfinding strategies and navigational aids in unfamiliar urban environment","volume":"22","author":"Vaez","year":"2020","journal-title":"Tour. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104524","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2020.104524","article-title":"The impact of cognitive aging on route learning rate and the acquisition of landmark knowledge","volume":"207","author":"Hilton","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nurmi, P., Salovaara, A., Bhattacharya, S., Pulkkinen, T., and Kahl, G. (2011, January 13\u201316). Influence of landmark-based navigation instructions on user attention in indoor smart spaces. Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces, Palo Alto, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/1943403.1943410"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"Hampe, M., and Elias, B. (2004). Integrating Topographic Information and Landmarks for Mobile Navigation. na, Leibniz University Hannover."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Lynch, K. (2015). The City Image and its Elements, Routledge."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1037\/1196-1961.50.1.87","article-title":"Object orientation information in semantic and episodic memory","volume":"50","author":"Uttl","year":"1996","journal-title":"Can. J. Exp. Psychol. Rev. Can. De. Psychol. Exp\u00e9rimentale"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sorrows, M.E., and Hirtle, S.C. (1999, January 25\u201329). The nature of landmarks for real and electronic spaces. Proceedings of the Spatial Information Theory. Cognitive and Computational Foundations of Geographic Information Science: International Conference COSIT\u201999, Stade, Germany.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-48384-5_3"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-835X.1988.tb01113.x","article-title":"Points of reference in spatial cognition: Stalking the elusive landmark","volume":"6","author":"Presson","year":"1988","journal-title":"Brit. J. Dev. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"Elias, B., and Paelke, V. (2008). User-centered design of landmark visualizations. Map-Based Mobile Services: Design, Interaction and Usability, Springer."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Konstantinou, E.N., Skopeliti, A., and Nakos, B. (2023). Poi symbol design in web cartography\u2014A comparative study. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi12070254"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gong, X., Lan, T., and Ti, P. (2023). Metric and color modifications for the automated construction of map symbols. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi12080331"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, C.H., and Li, X. (2020). Spatial Knowledge Acquisition with Mobile Maps: Effects of Map Size on Users\u2019 Wayfinding Performance with Interactive Interfaces. Int. J. Geo-Inf., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9110614"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Askarizad, R., He, J., and Khotbehsara, E.M. (2022). The Legibility Efficacy of Historical Neighborhoods in Creating a Cognitive Map for Citizens. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14159010"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/s10339-006-0049-7","article-title":"A framework for assessing the salience of landmarks for wayfinding tasks","volume":"7","author":"Caduff","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cogn. Process"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1177\/0013916591235002","article-title":"Effects of signage and floor plan configuration on wayfinding accuracy","volume":"23","year":"1991","journal-title":"Env. Behav."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"535","DOI":"10.1002\/oa.1156","article-title":"Comparison of coordinate measurement precision of different landmark types on human crania using a 3D laser scanner and a 3D digitiser: Implications for applications of digital morphometrics","volume":"21","author":"Sholts","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Osteoarchaeol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michon, P., and Denis, M. (2001, January 19\u201323). In When and why are visual landmarks used in giving directions?. Proceedings of the Spatial Information Theory: Foundations of Geographic Information Science International Conference, COSIT 2001, Morro Bay, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1007\/3-540-45424-1_20"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/0016-7185(92)90017-X","article-title":"Place recognition and wayfinding: Making sense of space","volume":"23","author":"Golledge","year":"1992","journal-title":"Geoforum"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ross, T., May, A., and Thompson, S. (2004, January 13\u201316). In The use of landmarks in pedestrian navigation instructions and the effects of context. Proceedings of the Mobile Human-Computer Interaction-MobileHCI 2004: 6th International Symposium, MobileHCI, Glasgow, UK.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-28637-0_26"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101407","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jenvp.2020.101407","article-title":"The effect of orientation instructions on the recall and reuse of route and survey elements in wayfinding descriptions","volume":"68","author":"Krukar","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Environ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klettner, S. (2020). Affective communication of map symbols: A semantic differential analysis. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi9050289"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keates, J.S. (2014). Understanding Maps, Routledge.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315843360"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2496","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2012.279","article-title":"Visual semiotics & uncertainty visualization: An empirical study","volume":"18","author":"MacEachren","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Vis. Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Noth, W. (1990). Handbook of Semiotics, Indiana University Press."},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Peirce, C.S. (1991). Peirce on Signs: Writings on Semiotic, UNC Press Books."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"89","article-title":"Some theoretical concerns along with the development of cartographic technologies","volume":"23","author":"Meng","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Zhengzhou Inst. Surv. Mapp."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Lakoff, G., and Johnson, M. (2008). Metaphors We Live By, University of Chicago press."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"56","article-title":"Design and implementation of map annotation automatic configuration module based on arcengine","volume":"17","author":"Haitao","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Geospat. Inf."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"205","article-title":"Discussion on Map Labeling and Map Annotation","volume":"1","author":"Qiao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geomat. Spat. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"44","article-title":"The Contents and Methods for Usability Evaluation of Electronic Map","volume":"27","author":"Ren","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Hydrogr. Surv. Charting"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Bertin, J. (2010). Semiology of Graphics: Diagrams, Networks, Maps, Esri Press."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-6918(67)90080-7","article-title":"The effects of target specification on objects fixated during visual search","volume":"27","author":"Williams","year":"1967","journal-title":"Acta Psychol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1080\/14640746808400128","article-title":"Selection in visual immediate memory","volume":"20","year":"1968","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0285(80)90005-5","article-title":"A feature-integration theory of attention","volume":"12","author":"Treisman","year":"1980","journal-title":"Cogn. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Garlandini, S., and Fabrikant, S.I. (2009, January 21\u201325). Evaluating the effectiveness and efficiency of visual variables for geographic information visualization. Proceedings of the 9th International Conference, COSIT 2009, Aber Wrach, France."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1080\/00140138008924818","article-title":"A comparison of colour and visual texture as codes for use as area symbols on thematic maps","volume":"23","author":"Phillips","year":"1980","journal-title":"Ergonomics"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Wilson, D.L., Kuperman, G.G., and Perez, W.A. (1988, January 24\u201326). Color symbol discrimination. Proceedings of the 1988 Engineering Management Conference, \u2018Engineering Leadership in the 90\u2019s\u2019, Dayton, OH, USA."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"97","article-title":"Differences in college students\u2019 spatial symbol cognition of tourism map: Based on experimental data from an eye-movement tracking system","volume":"31","author":"Wang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Tour. Trib."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Halpern, D.F. (2013). Sex Differences in Cognitive Abilities, Psychology Press.","DOI":"10.4324\/9780203816530"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/0162-3095(94)90020-5","article-title":"The hunter-gatherer theory of spatial sex differences: Proximate factors mediating the female advantage in recall of object arrays","volume":"15","author":"Eals","year":"1994","journal-title":"Ethol. Sociobiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1037\/0735-7044.104.1.84","article-title":"Organizational effects of early gonadal secretions on sexual differentiation in spatial memory","volume":"104","author":"Williams","year":"1990","journal-title":"Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01544230","article-title":"Gender differences in way-finding strategies: Relationship to spatial ability and spatial anxiety","volume":"30","author":"Lawton","year":"1994","journal-title":"Sex Roles"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.3724\/SP.J.1041.2012.01058","article-title":"The effect of gender, wayfinding strategy and navigational support on wayfinding behaviour","volume":"44","author":"Fang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Acta Psychol. Sin."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"48","article-title":"Spatial Cognition Analysis of Electronic Map Concerns with Sex Difference","volume":"4","author":"Yan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Geogr. Geo-Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Galotti, K.M. (2017). Cognitive Psychology in and Out of the Laboratory, Sage Publications."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1753","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2010.07.002","article-title":"The moderating effects of gender on e-commerce systems adoption factors: An empirical investigation","volume":"26","author":"Hwang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"299","article-title":"A study on the cognitive styles and gender difference of normal university students in China","volume":"14","author":"Peng","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Health Psychol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kimura, D. (2000). Sex and Cognition, MIT Press.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/6194.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2016.02.007","article-title":"Sex and cognition: Gender and cognitive functions","volume":"38","author":"Hyde","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.2466\/pms.1996.82.1.3","article-title":"Sex differences for speech and manual skill","volume":"82","author":"Nicholson","year":"1996","journal-title":"Percept. Mot. Ski."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1080\/13875868.2016.1254634","article-title":"Eye tracking for spatial research: Cognition, computation, challenges","volume":"17","author":"Kiefer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Spat. Cogn. Comput."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"599","article-title":"New research progress of eye tracking-based map cognition in cartography since 2008","volume":"74","author":"Dong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Geogr. Sin"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1559\/152304002782008369","article-title":"Testing the usability of interactive maps in CommonGIS","volume":"29","author":"Andrienko","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cart. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1179\/1743277412Y.0000000010","article-title":"Investigating the effectiveness of an efficient label placement method using eye movement data","volume":"49","author":"Ooms","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cartogr. J."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.1179\/1743277413Y.0000000058","article-title":"Eye-tracking study on different perception of 2D and 3D terrain visualisation","volume":"50","author":"Popelka","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cartogr. J."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"58","article-title":"Research on the Effectiveness of Point Symbols in Different Tourist Web-Map Style","volume":"2","author":"Lin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Geomat. Spat. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1179\/1743277414Y.0000000103","article-title":"An empirical user study for measuring the influence of colour distance and font size in map reading using eye tracking","volume":"53","author":"Brychtova","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cartogr. J."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"31","article-title":"Review of Research on Evaluating the Human\u2014Computer Interaction Efficiency of Digital Interfaces Based on Eye\u2014Tracking Technology","volume":"3","author":"Tian","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Electron. Opt. Control."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"703","article-title":"Experimental study on characteristics of icon searching based on feature inference","volume":"04","author":"Peng","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Southeast Univ."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2014.06.016","article-title":"Deriving an appropriate baseline for describing fixation behaviour","volume":"102","author":"Clarke","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vis. Res."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"196","DOI":"10.1002\/col.21949","article-title":"The influence of color on student emotion, heart rate, and performance in learning environments","volume":"41","author":"Kane","year":"2016","journal-title":"Color Res. Appl."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"784","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2016.00784","article-title":"Exploring the effect of red and blue on cognitive task performances","volume":"7","author":"Xia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Urdan, T.C. (2022). Statistics in Plain English, Taylor & Francis.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781003006459"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2012.09.919","article-title":"The effectiveness of variable message signs information: A driving simulation study","volume":"53","author":"Guattari","year":"2012","journal-title":"Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-6918(98)00021-3","article-title":"Why naming takes longer than reading? The special case of Arabic numbers","volume":"100","author":"Ferrand","year":"1999","journal-title":"Acta Psychol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paivio, A. (2013). Imagery and Verbal Processes, Psychology Press.","DOI":"10.4324\/9781315798868"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03196896","article-title":"A propositional theory of recognition memory","volume":"2","author":"Anderson","year":"1974","journal-title":"Mem. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.3.5.485","article-title":"Learning to order pictures and words: A model of sensory and semantic encoding","volume":"3","author":"Nelson","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Exp. Psychol. Hum. Learn. Mem."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1038\/253437a0","article-title":"Time to understand pictures and words","volume":"253","author":"Potter","year":"1975","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Proffitt, D.R., and Wade, M.M. (1998). Creating effective variable message signs: Human factors issues. Virginia Transportation Research Council, University of Virginia."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720817751623","article-title":"Legibility of text and pictograms in variable message signs: Can single-word messages outperform pictograms?","volume":"60","author":"Roca","year":"2018","journal-title":"Hum. Factors"},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Ware, C. (2013). Information Visualization: Perception for Design, Morgan Kaufmann. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1170","DOI":"10.1109\/TVCG.2011.127","article-title":"Attention and visual memory in visualization and computer graphics","volume":"18","author":"Healey","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Vis. Comput. Graph."},{"key":"ref_77","first-page":"227","article-title":"Landmarks are exaggerated","volume":"17","author":"Montello","year":"2017","journal-title":"Spat. Cogn. Comput."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Norman Donald, A. (2013). The Design of Everyday Things, Basic Books."},{"key":"ref_79","unstructured":"Ward, M.O., Grinstein, G., and Keim, D. (2020). Interactive Data Visualization: Foundations, Techniques, and Applications, CRC Press."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1080\/14498596.2008.9635147","article-title":"Ask for directions or use a map: A field experiment on spatial orientation and wayfinding in an urban environment","volume":"53","author":"Meilinger","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Spat. Sci."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.3758\/s13414-010-0027-0","article-title":"Aesthetic response to color combinations: Preference, harmony, and similarity","volume":"73","author":"Schloss","year":"2011","journal-title":"Atten. Percept. Psychophys."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"263","article-title":"Effects of display size and resolution on mobile map legibility","volume":"44","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cartogr. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","first-page":"1124","article-title":"Spatial cognitive elements of VR mobile city navigation map","volume":"44","author":"Fang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Geomat. Inf. Sci. Wuhan Univ."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"1","article-title":"Structural Differences in Some Psychological Characteristics between Young Men and Women","volume":"3","author":"Popovic","year":"2016","journal-title":"Open Access Libr. J."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1108\/07363761211259278","article-title":"Gender, Design and Marketing","volume":"29","author":"Paswan","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Consum. Mark."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2014.05.010","article-title":"Prior schemata transfer as an account for assessing the intuitive use of new technology","volume":"46","author":"Fischer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Erg."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Horbi\u0144ski, T., Cybulski, P., and Medy\u0144ska-Gulij, B. (2021). Web map effectiveness in the responsive context of the graphical user interface. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi10030134"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1080\/23729333.2023.2189064","article-title":"Eye-tracking in map use, map user and map usability research: What are we looking for?","volume":"9","author":"Fairbairn","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Cartogr."}],"container-title":["ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/14\/3\/129\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:53:40Z","timestamp":1760028820000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2220-9964\/14\/3\/129"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,14]]},"references-count":88,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ijgi14030129"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijgi14030129","relation":{},"ISSN":["2220-9964"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2220-9964","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,14]]}}}