{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T14:41:14Z","timestamp":1791988874222,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2011,5,13]],"date-time":"2011-05-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1305244800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Obesity is a chronic disease of multifactorial origin and can be defined as an increase in the accumulation of body fat. Adipose tissue is not only a triglyceride storage organ, but studies have shown the role of white adipose tissue as a producer of certain bioactive substances called adipokines. Among adipokines, we find some inflammatory functions, such as Interleukin-6 (IL-6); other adipokines entail the functions of regulating food intake, therefore exerting a direct effect on weight control. This is the case of leptin, which acts on the limbic system by stimulating dopamine uptake, creating a feeling of fullness. However, these adipokines induce the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), generating a process known as oxidative stress (OS). Because adipose tissue is the organ that secretes adipokines and these in turn generate ROS, adipose tissue is considered an independent factor for the generation of systemic OS. There are several mechanisms by which obesity produces OS. The first of these is the mitochondrial and peroxisomal oxidation of fatty acids, which can produce ROS in oxidation reactions, while another mechanism is over-consumption of oxygen, which generates free radicals in the mitochondrial respiratory chain that is found coupled with oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria. Lipid-rich diets are also capable of generating ROS because they can alter oxygen metabolism. Upon the increase of adipose tissue, the activity of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx), was found to be significantly diminished. Finally, high ROS production and the decrease in antioxidant capacity leads to various abnormalities, among which we find endothelial dysfunction, which is characterized by a reduction in the bioavailability of vasodilators, particularly nitric oxide (NO), and an increase in endothelium-derived contractile factors, favoring atherosclerotic disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms12053117","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,5,13]],"date-time":"2011-05-13T11:42:42Z","timestamp":1305286962000},"page":"3117-3132","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1289,"title":["Inflammation, Oxidative Stress, and Obesity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Alba","family":"Fern\u00e1ndez-S\u00e1nchez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma del Estado de Hidalgo, Ex-Hacienda de la Concepci\u00f3n, Tilcuautla, 42080 Pachuca de Soto, Hgo, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2264-4598","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eduardo","family":"Madrigal-Santill\u00e1n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma del Estado de Hidalgo, Ex-Hacienda de la Concepci\u00f3n, Tilcuautla, 42080 Pachuca de Soto, Hgo, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6725-270X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mirandeli","family":"Bautista","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma del Estado de Hidalgo, Ex-Hacienda de la Concepci\u00f3n, Tilcuautla, 42080 Pachuca de Soto, Hgo, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jaime","family":"Esquivel-Soto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Odontolog\u00eda, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico (UNAM), M\u00e9xico, D.F., Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"\u00c1ngel","family":"Morales-Gonz\u00e1lez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Escuela Superior de C\u00f3mputo, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico Nacional, M\u00e9xico, D.F., Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cesar","family":"Esquivel-Chirino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Odontolog\u00eda, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico (UNAM), M\u00e9xico, D.F., Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Irene","family":"Durante-Montiel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Divisi\u00f3n de Estudios de Posgrado, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico (UNAM), Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Graciela","family":"S\u00e1nchez-Rivera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Carrera de M\u00e9dico Cirujano, FES-Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico (UNAM), Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carmen","family":"Valadez-Vega","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma del Estado de Hidalgo, Ex-Hacienda de la Concepci\u00f3n, Tilcuautla, 42080 Pachuca de Soto, Hgo, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5980-0980","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 A.","family":"Morales-Gonz\u00e1lez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma del Estado de Hidalgo, Ex-Hacienda de la Concepci\u00f3n, Tilcuautla, 42080 Pachuca de Soto, Hgo, Mexico"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,5,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Casanueva, E, Kaufer, M, P\u00e9rez, A, and Arroyo, P (2001). Nutriolog\u00eda M\u00e9dica, Editorial M\u00e9dica Panamericana. [1st ed]."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"165","article-title":"The clinical biochemistry of obesity","volume":"25","author":"Sikaris","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem. Rev"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0197-3118.2006.05458.x","article-title":"The role of beta-cell dysfunction in the cardiometabolic syndrome","volume":"1","author":"Lastra","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Cardiometab. Syndr"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Barquera, S, Tolentino, L, and Rivera, J (2006). Sobrepeso y Obesidad, Instituto Nacional de Salud P\u00fablica. [1st ed]."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.2147\/vhrm.2006.2.2.163","article-title":"Leptin and hypertension in obesity","volume":"2","author":"Bravo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vasc. Health Risk Manage"},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"189","article-title":"Is obesity associated with increased plasma lipid peroxidaci\u00f3n and oxidative stress in women","volume":"2","author":"Amirkhizi","year":"2007","journal-title":"ARYA Atheroscler. J"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph7030765","article-title":"Prevention of overweight and obesity: How effective is the current public health approach","volume":"7","author":"Chan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S4","DOI":"10.1038\/ijo.2010.234","article-title":"Body composition phenotypes in pathways to obesity and the metabolic syndrome","volume":"34","author":"Dulloo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int J Obes"},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"505","article-title":"Adipocinas, tejido adiposo y su relaci\u00f3n con c\u00e9lulas del sistema inmune","volume":"141","author":"Cruz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Gac. M\u00e9d. M\u00e9x"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.2010.05875.x","article-title":"Adipokines as novel biomarkers and regulators of the metabolic syndrome","volume":"1212","author":"Deng","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"S192","article-title":"Adipose tissue as an endocrine organ: From theory to practice","volume":"83","author":"Takada","year":"2007","journal-title":"J Pediatr"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"319","DOI":"10.1038\/oby.2006.41","article-title":"Adiponectin, visceral fat, oxidative stress and early macrovascular disease: The coronary artery risk development in young adults study","volume":"14","author":"Steffes","year":"2006","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1773","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2003-030803","article-title":"Leptin and the proinflammatory state associated with human obesity","volume":"89","author":"Hukshorn","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"195","article-title":"Obesidad, inflamaci\u00f3n y disfunci\u00f3n endotelial","volume":"4","author":"Cachofeiro","year":"2006","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Obes"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2921","article-title":"Adipokines in inflammation and metabolic disease","volume":"11","author":"Ouchi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1718","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI29623","article-title":"Adiponectin deficiency increases leukocyte-endothelium interactions via upregulation of endothelial cell adhesion molecules in vivo","volume":"117","author":"Ouedraogo","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Invest"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"49","article-title":"Obesidad e inflamaci\u00f3n","volume":"48","author":"Recansens","year":"2004","journal-title":"Rev. Med. Univ. Navarra"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1186\/2047-783X-15-S2-147","article-title":"Adiponectin as a biomarker of the metabolic syndrome in children and adolescents","volume":"15","author":"Pyrzak","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur J Med Res"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1038\/35053000","article-title":"The hormone resistin links obesity to diabetes","volume":"409","author":"Steppan","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2796.2004.01306.x","article-title":"The current biology of resistin","volume":"255","author":"Steppan","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Int. Med"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"9","article-title":"Visfatin\u2014A review","volume":"15","author":"Sonoli","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1159\/000319508","article-title":"Expression of neuropeptide Y, omentin and visfatin in visceral and subcutaneous adipose tissues in humans: Relation to endocrine and clinical parameters","volume":"3","author":"Barth","year":"2010","journal-title":"Obes. Facts"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-010-1973-8","article-title":"Dissociation of lipotoxicity and glucotoxicity in a mouse model of obesity associated diabetes: Role of forkhead box O1 (FOXO1) in glucose-induced beta cell failure","volume":"54","author":"Kluth","year":"2011","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"791","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03347372","article-title":"Oxidative stress in the Metabolic Syndrome","volume":"29","author":"Esposito","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol. Invest"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.ijo.0803068","article-title":"Atherogenic inflammatory and oxidative stress markers in relation to overweight values in male former athletes","volume":"30","author":"Pihl","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Obesity"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2006.05.007","article-title":"The implication of obesity on total antioxidant capacity apparently healthy men and women: The ATTICA study","volume":"17","author":"Chrysohoou","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1007\/s12263-007-0041-6","article-title":"Effec of supplementation with vitamin E and C on plasma hsCPR level and cobalt-albumin binding score as markers of plasma oxidative stress in obesity","volume":"2","author":"Hartwich","year":"2007","journal-title":"Genes Nutr"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4476","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2007-0778","article-title":"Prolonged reactive oxygen species generation and Nuclear Factor- kB activation after a high-fat, high-carbohydrate meal in the obese","volume":"92","author":"Patel","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1093\/aje\/kwf029","article-title":"Factors associated with oxidative stress in human populations","volume":"156","author":"Block","year":"2002","journal-title":"Am. J. Epidemiol"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1161\/01.ATV.0000058402.34138.11","article-title":"Obesity and systemic oxidative stress: Clinical correlates of oxidative stress in the Framingham study","volume":"23","author":"Keaney","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Tromb. Vasc. Biol"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1161\/01.ATV.0000063107.86298.FD","article-title":"Is a oxidative stress a connection between obesity and atherosclerosis","volume":"23","author":"Morrow","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Tromb. Vasc. Biol"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4539","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v13.i34.4539","article-title":"Pathogenesis and management issues for non-alcoholic fatty liver disease","volume":"13","author":"Duvnjak","year":"2007","journal-title":"World. J. Gastroenterol"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"62","article-title":"Obesity: An independent risk factor systemic oxidative stress","volume":"19","author":"Khan","year":"2006","journal-title":"Park. J. Pharm. Sci"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289645","DOI":"10.1155\/2010\/289645","article-title":"Chronic inflammation in obesity and the metabolic syndrome","volume":"2010","author":"Monteiro","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mediators. Inflamm"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03165759","article-title":"Mitocondrial oxidative stress and inflammation: A slalom to obesity and insulin resistance","volume":"62","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Biochem"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.2174\/156720207779940653","article-title":"Oxidative stress biology and cell injury during type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus","volume":"4","author":"Mainese","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Neoruvasc. Res"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1016\/S0009-9120(02)00363-6","article-title":"Increased oxidative stress and hypozincemia in male obesity","volume":"35","author":"Ozata","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1042\/bj2190041","article-title":"Abnormal antioxidant defense in some tissues of congenitally obese mice","volume":"219","author":"Capel","year":"1984","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1249\/01.MSS.0000152705.77073.B3","article-title":"Obesity and postexercise oxidative stress in older women","volume":"37","author":"Vincent","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med. Sci. Sports Exer"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1752","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI21625","article-title":"Increased oxidative stress in obesity and its impact on metabolic syndrome","volume":"114","author":"Furukawa","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Clin. Invest"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1161\/01.ATV.0000063608.43095.E2","article-title":"Obesity and oxidative stress: A direct link to CVD?","volume":"23","author":"Higdon","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Tromb. Vasc. Biol"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI119534","article-title":"Role of nitric oxide in obesity-induced \u03b2 cell disease","volume":"100","author":"Shimabukuro","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Clin. Invest"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1080\/095371032000158763","article-title":"Inhibition of human blood platelet aggregation and the stimulation of nitric oxide synthesis by aspirin","volume":"14","author":"Chakraborty","year":"2003","journal-title":"Platelets"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1303","DOI":"10.1038\/oby.2005.157","article-title":"Basal endothelial nitric oxide release is preserved in overweight and obese adults","volume":"13","author":"Greiner","year":"2005","journal-title":"Obes. Res"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1152\/ajprenal.00388.2002","article-title":"Effect of salt on hypertension and oxidative stress in a rat model of diet-induced obesity","volume":"285","author":"Dobrian","year":"2003","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Renal. Physiol"},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Barquera, S, Tolentino, L, and Rivera, J (2006). Sobrepeso y Obesidad, Instituto Nacional de Salud P\u00fablica. [1st ed]."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"505","article-title":"Macr\u00f3fagos, inflamaci\u00f3n, tejido adiposo, obesidad y resistencia a la insulina","volume":"143","author":"Bastarrachea","year":"2007","journal-title":"Gac. M\u00e9d. M\u00e9x"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"914","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.1964","article-title":"CD8 + effector T cells contribute to macrophage recruitment and adipose tissue inflammation in obesity","volume":"15","author":"Nishimura","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Med"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1470","DOI":"10.2337\/db07-1403","article-title":"Changes in gut microbiota control metabolic endotoxemia-induced inflammation in high-fat diet-induced obesity and diabetes in mice","volume":"57","author":"Cani","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_50","first-page":"183","article-title":"Endothelial dysfunction: Cardiovascular risk factors, therapy, and outcome","volume":"1","author":"Hadi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vasc. Health Risk Manage"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6454","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2004-2438","article-title":"Circulating levels of oxidative stress markers and endotelial adhesi\u00f3n molecules in men with abdominal obesity","volume":"90","author":"Couillard","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"H904","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpheart.00628.2006","article-title":"Early experimental obesity is associated with endothelial dysfunction and oxidative stress","volume":"292","author":"Galili","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/12\/5\/3117\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:56:05Z","timestamp":1760219765000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/12\/5\/3117"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2011,5,13]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,5]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms12053117"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms12053117","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2011,5,13]]}}}