{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T22:52:20Z","timestamp":1782255140742,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":107,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,19]],"date-time":"2013-07-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1374192000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Chlamydia pneumoniae, an obligate intracellular pathogen, is known as a leading cause of respiratory tract infections and, in the last two decades, has been widely associated with atherosclerosis by seroepidemiological studies, and direct detection of the microorganism within atheroma. C. pneumoniae is presumed to play a role in atherosclerosis for its ability to disseminate via peripheral blood mononuclear cells, to replicate and persist within vascular cells, and for its pro-inflammatory and angiogenic effects. Once inside the vascular tissue, C. pneumoniae infection has been shown to  induce the production of reactive oxygen species in all the cells involved in atherosclerotic process such as macrophages, platelets, endothelial cells, and vascular smooth muscle cells, leading to oxidative stress. The aim of this review is to summarize the data linking  C. pneumoniae-induced oxidative stress to atherosclerotic lesion development.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms140715105","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,19]],"date-time":"2013-07-19T12:12:52Z","timestamp":1374235972000},"page":"15105-15120","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["Chlamydia pneumoniae Infection in Atherosclerotic Lesion Development through Oxidative Stress: A Brief Overview"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Marisa","family":"Di Pietro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, \"Sapienza\" University, Rome 00185, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Simone","family":"Filardo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, \"Sapienza\" University, Rome 00185, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fiorenzo","family":"De Santis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, \"Sapienza\" University, Rome 00185, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rosa","family":"Sessa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, \"Sapienza\" University, Rome 00185, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1005","article-title":"The biological role of inflammation in atherosclerosis","volume":"393","author":"Wong","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"858","DOI":"10.1160\/TH11-06-0392","article-title":"Pathogens and atherosclerosis: Update on the potential contribution of multiple infectious organisms to the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis","volume":"106","author":"Rosenfeld","year":"2011","journal-title":"Thromb. Haemost"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-125-12-199612150-00008","article-title":"Isolation of Chlamydia pneumoniae from the coronary artery of a patient with coronary atherosclerosis. The Chlamydia pneumoniae\/Atherosclerosis Study Group","volume":"125","author":"Ramirez","year":"1996","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1086\/517270","article-title":"Isolation of Chlamydia pneumoniae from a carotid endarterectomy specimen","volume":"176","author":"Jackson","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1016\/S0735-1097(98)00016-3","article-title":"Endovascular presence of viable Chlamydia pneumoniae is a common phenomenon in coronary artery disease","volume":"31","author":"Maass","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1007\/s100960050481","article-title":"Isolation and continuous growth of Chlamydia pneumoniae from arterectomy specimens","volume":"19","author":"Apfalter","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2011.03.004","article-title":"Chlamydia persistence\u2014A tool to dissect Chlamydia-host interactions","volume":"13","author":"Schoborg","year":"2011","journal-title":"Microbes. Infect"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2460","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-4141(200209)32:9<2460::AID-IMMU2460>3.0.CO;2-M","article-title":"Role of chlamydial heat shock protein 60 in the stimulation of innate immune cells by Chlamydia pneumoniae","volume":"32","author":"Costa","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.2174\/1568010023344652","article-title":"Chlamydial heat shock protein 60 and lipopolysaccharide: Potential virulence determinants in atherogenesis","volume":"1","author":"Kalayoglu","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Targets Inflamm. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.3109\/08820139.2010.534217","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae heat shock protein 60 enhances expression of ERK, TLR-4 and IL-8 in atheromatous plaques of coronary artery disease patients","volume":"40","author":"Jha","year":"2011","journal-title":"Immunol. Invest"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2741","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehq396","article-title":"Is oxidative stress a therapeutic target in cardiovascular disease?","volume":"31","author":"Gori","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1007\/s11883-012-0266-8","article-title":"Evolving concepts of oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species in cardiovascular disease","volume":"14","author":"Chen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Atheroscler. Rep."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1007\/s00430-004-0223-4","article-title":"Elicitation of reactive oxygen species in Chlamydia pneumoniae-stimulated macrophages: A Ca2+-dependent process involving simultaneous activation of NADPH oxidase and cytochrome oxidase genes","volume":"194","author":"Azenabor","year":"2005","journal-title":"Med. Microbiol. Immunol"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1160\/TH04-06-0360","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae induces nitric oxide synthase and lipoxygenase-dependent production of reactive oxygen species in platelets. Effects on oxidation of low density lipoproteins","volume":"94","author":"Bylin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Thromb. Haemost"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvr251","article-title":"Oxidized LDL promotes the mitogenic actions of Chlamydia pneumoniae in vascular smooth muscle cells","volume":"92","author":"Chahine","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/s12192-012-0378-7","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae infection acts as an endothelial stressor with the potential to initiate the earliest heat shock protein 60-dependent inflammatory stage of atherosclerosis","volume":"18","author":"Kreutmayer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Stress Chaperones"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"s402","DOI":"10.1086\/315596","article-title":"Background and current knowledge of Chlamydia pneumoniae and atherosclerosis","volume":"181","author":"Grayston","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2007.04.052","article-title":"Measurement of Chlamydia pneumoniae bacterial load in peripheral blood mononuclear cells may be helpful to assess the state of chlamydial infection in patients with carotid atherosclerotic disease","volume":"195","author":"Sessa","year":"2007","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2006.07.013","article-title":"Circulating Chlamydia pneumoniae DNA and advanced coronary artery disease","volume":"118","author":"Wang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1677","DOI":"10.1007\/s00198-012-2217-1","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae and osteoporosis-associated bone loss: A new risk factor?","volume":"24","author":"Schiavoni","year":"2013","journal-title":"Osteoporos. Int"},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"155","article-title":"Could past Chlamydial vascular infection promote the dissemination of Chlamydia pneumoniae to the brain?","volume":"27","author":"Filardo","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Biol. Regul. Homeost. Agents"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1128\/mr.55.1.143-190.1991","article-title":"Interaction of chlamydiae and host cells in vitro","volume":"55","author":"Moulder","year":"1991","journal-title":"Microbiol. Rev"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1843","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.72.4.1843-1855.2004","article-title":"Chlamydial persistence: Beyond the biphasic paradigm","volume":"72","author":"Hogan","year":"2004","journal-title":"Infect. Immun"},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"277","article-title":"Analysis of gene expression in penicillin G induced persistence of Chlamydia pneumoniae","volume":"26","author":"Tramonti","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biol. Regul. Homeost. Agents"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1177\/1721727X1301100126","article-title":"The elusive but pathogenic peptidoglycan of Chlamydiae","volume":"11","author":"Sessa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Inflamm"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.103.3.351","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in circulating human monocytes is refractory to antibiotic treatment","volume":"103","author":"Gieffers","year":"2001","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1472-8206.2010.00863.x","article-title":"Possibilities for therapeutic interventions in disrupting Chlamydophila pneumoniae involvement in atherosclerosis","volume":"24","author":"Deniset","year":"2010","journal-title":"Fundam. Clin. Pharmacol"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"983","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(88)90741-6","article-title":"Serological evidence of an association of a novel Chlamydia, TWAR, with chronic coronary heart disease and acute myocardial infarction","volume":"2","author":"Saikku","year":"1988","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1116","DOI":"10.1016\/S0002-8703(99)70371-6","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and atherosclerotic coronary disease","volume":"137","author":"Sessa","year":"1999","journal-title":"Am. Heart J"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.15.1.1-20.2002","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae and atherosclerosis: Critical assessment of diagnostic methods and relevance to treatment studies","volume":"15","author":"Boman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2004.02.003","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae is a likely risk factor for ischemic stroke in young patients","volume":"13","author":"Voorend","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Stroke Cerebrovasc. Dis"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jjcc.2008.07.001","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae IgA and elevated level of IL-6 may synergize to accelerate coronary artery disease","volume":"52","author":"Jha","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Cardiol"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"599","article-title":"One-year observation of inflammatory markers in patients with aortic valve stenosis who expressed high or low Chlamydia pneumoniae antibody titers","volume":"21","author":"Swierszcz","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Heart Valve Dis"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.4103\/1947-2714.109178","article-title":"Chlamydophila pneumoniae infection and cardiovascular disease","volume":"5","author":"Joshi","year":"2013","journal-title":"N. Am. J. Med. Sci"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"492","DOI":"10.1086\/322632","article-title":"C. pneumoniae Workshop Participants. Standardizing Chlamydia pneumoniae assays: Recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (USA) and the Laboratory Centre for Disease Control (Canada)","volume":"33","author":"Dowell","year":"2001","journal-title":"Clin. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"16","article-title":"Histological and ultrastructural findings suggesting an initiating role for Chlamydia pneumoniae in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis","volume":"11","author":"Shor","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. J. S. Afr"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1177\/039463200401700310","article-title":"Detection of Chlamydia pneumoniae in atherosclerotic coronary arteries","volume":"17","author":"Sessa","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1556\/AMicr.53.2006.1.3","article-title":"Chlamydophila pneumoniae and human cytomegalovirus in atherosclerotic carotid plaques\u2013combined presence and possible interactions","volume":"53","author":"Virok","year":"2006","journal-title":"Acta Microbiol. Immunol. Hung"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1177\/205873920601900111","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae in asymptomatic carotid atherosclerosis","volume":"19","author":"Sessa","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Immunopathol. Pharmacol"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0463.2009.02553.x","article-title":"Prevalence of Chlamydophila pneumoniae is higher in aorta and coronary artery than in carotid artery of coronary artery disease patients","volume":"117","author":"Jha","year":"2009","journal-title":"APMIS"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Atik, B., Johnston, S.C., and Dean, D. (2010). Association of carotid plaque Lp-PLA(2) with macrophages and Chlamydia pneumoniae infection among patients at risk for stroke. PLoS One, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0011026"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"2423","article-title":"Early atherosclerotic plaques show evidence of infection by Chlamydia pneumoniae","volume":"4","author":"Luque","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Biosci"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.35.1.48-52.1997","article-title":"Rabbit model for Chlamydia pneumoniae infection","volume":"35","author":"Fong","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S505","DOI":"10.1086\/315627","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae-induced atherosclerosis in a rabbit model","volume":"181","author":"Muhlestein","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9150(00)00758-9","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae infection accelerates hyperlipidemia induced atherosclerotic lesion development in C57BL\/6J mice","volume":"158","author":"Blessing","year":"2001","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1053\/ejvs.2002.1913","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae infection induces an unstable atherosclerotic plaque phenotype in LDL-receptor, ApoE double knockout mice","volume":"26","author":"Ezzahiri","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eur. J. Vasc. Endovasc. Surg"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5619","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1001879","article-title":"IL-17A is proatherogenic in high-fat diet-induced and Chlamydia pneumoniae infection-accelerated atherosclerosis in mice","volume":"185","author":"Chen","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Immunol"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4405","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1003116","article-title":"GroEL1, a heat shock protein 60 of Chlamydia pneumoniae, induces lectin-like oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptor 1 expression in endothelial cells and enhances atherogenesis in hypercholesterolemic rabbits","volume":"186","author":"Lin","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Immunol"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, C.Y., Shih, C.M., Tsao, N.W., Chen, Y.H., Li, C.Y., Chang, Y.J., Chang, N.C., Ou, K.L., Lin, C.Y., and Lin, Y.W. (2012). GroEL1, from Chlamydia pneumoniae, induces vascular adhesion molecule 1 expression by p37(AUF1) in endothelial cells and hypercholesterolemic rabbit. PLoS One, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/annotation\/6f8adaaa-19d8-4187-9418-24a05ae77c8c"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1086\/513986","article-title":"Murine models of Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and atherosclerosis","volume":"175","author":"Moazed","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1322","DOI":"10.1086\/515280","article-title":"Evidence of systemic dissemination of Chlamydia pneumoniae via macrophages in the mouse","volume":"177","author":"Moazed","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cardiores.2004.09.031","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae infections in mouse models: Relevance for atherosclerosis research","volume":"65","author":"Keller","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1723","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.73.3.1723-1734.2005","article-title":"Age alterations in extent and severity of experimental intranasal infection with Chlamydophila pneumoniae in BALB\/c mice","volume":"73","author":"Little","year":"2005","journal-title":"Infect. Immun"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1086\/517452","article-title":"High prevalence of Chlamydia pneumoniae DNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in patients with cardiovascular disease and in middle-aged blood donors","volume":"178","author":"Boman","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9150(01)00537-8","article-title":"Prevalence of Chlamydia pneumoniae in peripheral blood mononuclear cells in Italian patients with acute ischaemic heart disease","volume":"159","author":"Sessa","year":"2001","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smieja, M., Mahony, J., Petrich, A., Boman, J., and Chernesky, M. (2002). Association of circulating Chlamydia pneumoniae DNA with cardiovascular disease: A systematic review. BMC Infect. Dis., 2.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2334-2-21"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1064","DOI":"10.1160\/TH09-06-0348","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae adversely modulates vascular cell properties by direct interaction with signalling cascades","volume":"102","author":"Kern","year":"2009","journal-title":"Thromb. Haemost"},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"65","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae and atherosclerosis: The role of mast cells","volume":"23","author":"Schiavoni","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Biol. Regul. Homeost. Agents"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1582-4934.2008.00285.x","article-title":"Pro-atherogenic lung and oral pathogens induce an inflammatory response in human and mouse mast cells","volume":"13","author":"Oksaharju","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Cell. Mol. Med"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/S1286-4579(99)80044-6","article-title":"Characterization of low-density lipoprotein uptake by murine macrophages exposed to Chlamydia pneumoniae","volume":"1","author":"Kalayoglu","year":"1999","journal-title":"Microbes Infect"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.01386-06","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae-induced macrophage foam cell formation is mediated by Toll-like receptor 2","volume":"75","author":"Cao","year":"2007","journal-title":"Infect. Immun"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2007.07.003","article-title":"Chlamydophilal antigens induce foam cell formation via c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase","volume":"9","author":"Kitazawa","year":"2007","journal-title":"Microbes Infect"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2008.11.001","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae induces macrophage-derived foam cell formation by up-regulating acyl-coenzyme A: Cholesterol acyltransferase 1","volume":"11","author":"He","year":"2009","journal-title":"Microbes Infect"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2010.09.004","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae disturbs cholesterol homeostasis in human THP-1 macrophages via JNK-PPAR\u03b3 dependent signal transduction pathways","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Microbes Infect"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-4141(200002)30:2<541::AID-IMMU541>3.0.CO;2-X","article-title":"Acellular components of Chlamydia pneumoniae stimulate cytokine production in human blood mononuclear cells","volume":"30","author":"Netea","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S473","DOI":"10.1086\/315612","article-title":"Growth in vascular cells and cytokine production by Chlamydia pneumoniae","volume":"181","author":"Gaydos","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.98.4.300","article-title":"Chlamydial heat shock protein 60 localizes in human atheroma and regulates macrophage tumor necrosis factor-alpha and matrix metalloproteinase expression","volume":"98","author":"Kol","year":"1998","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Di Pietro, M., de Santis, F., Schiavoni, G., Filardo, S., and Sessa, R. (2013). Resveratrol in Chlamydia pneumoniae induced foam cell formationand interleukin-17A sythesis. J. Biol. Regul. Homeost. Agents, 27, in press."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4834","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.162.8.4834","article-title":"Signal transduction pathways activated in endothelial cells following infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae","volume":"162","author":"Klucken","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Immunol"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1323","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.67.3.1323-1330.1999","article-title":"Infection of human endothelial cells with Chlamydia pneumoniae stimulates transendothelial migration of neutrophils and monocytes","volume":"67","author":"Molestina","year":"1999","journal-title":"Infect. Immun"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1760","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.101.15.1760","article-title":"Hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors modify the inflammatory response of human macrophages and endothelial cells infected with Chlamydia pneumoniae","volume":"101","author":"Kothe","year":"2000","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0463.2008.01145.x","article-title":"Expression of chemokines and adhesion molecules in human coronary artery endothelial cells infected with Chlamydia (Chlamydophila) pneumoniae","volume":"116","year":"2008","journal-title":"APMIS"},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"168","article-title":"Chlamydia species infect human vascular endothelial cells and induce procoagulant activity","volume":"45","author":"Fryer","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Investig. Med"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1369","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.100.13.1369","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae infection of vascular smooth muscle and endothelial cells activates NF-kappaB and induces tissue factor and PAI-1 expression: A potential link to accelerated arteriosclerosis","volume":"100","author":"Dechend","year":"1999","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"s479","DOI":"10.1086\/315620","article-title":"Interactions of Chlamydia pneumoniae with human endothelial cells","volume":"181","author":"Summersgill","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"779","DOI":"10.1111\/cmi.12071","article-title":"Transcription factor complex AP-1 mediates inflammation initiated by Chlamydia pneumoniae infection","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Microbiol"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1188","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-4141(200204)32:4<1188::AID-IMMU1188>3.0.CO;2-A","article-title":"Non-LPS components of Chlamydia pneumoniae stimulate cytokine production through Toll-like receptor 2-dependent pathways","volume":"32","author":"Netea","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2308","DOI":"10.1161\/01.ATV.0000187468.00675.a3","article-title":"Toll-like receptor 2 mediates persistent chemokine release by Chlamydia pneumoniae-infected vascular smooth muscle cells","volume":"25","author":"Yang","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1124\/mi.11.1.5","article-title":"NOX isoforms and reactive oxygen species in vascular health","volume":"11","author":"Touyz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Interv"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.imbio.2005.12.001","article-title":"Macrophage antioxidant enzymes regulate Chlamydia pneumoniae chronicity: Evidence of the effect of redox balance on host-pathogen relationship","volume":"211","author":"Azenabor","year":"2006","journal-title":"Immunobiology"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1445","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.67.3.1445-1449.1999","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in human monocytes","volume":"67","author":"Airenne","year":"1999","journal-title":"Infect. Immun"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2003.09.001","article-title":"IFN-gamma induced persistent Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in HL and Mono Mac 6 cells: Characterization by real-time quantitative PCR and culture","volume":"36","author":"Mannonen","year":"2004","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1099","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-5822.2005.00534.x","article-title":"Silencing or permanent activation: Host-cell responses in models of persistent Chlamydia pneumoniae infection","volume":"7","author":"Peters","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cell Microbiol"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1574-6968.2008.01446.x","article-title":"The transcript profile of persistent Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) pneumoniae in vitro depends on the means by which persistence is induced","volume":"291","author":"Klos","year":"2009","journal-title":"FEMS Microbiol. Lett"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1515\/BC.2004.009","article-title":"Induction of lipoprotein lipase gene expression in Chlamydia pneumoniae-infected macrophages is dependent on Ca2+ signaling events","volume":"385","author":"Azenabor","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biol. Chem"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellbi.2008.12.002","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae induces macrophage-derived foam cell formation via PPAR alpha and PPAR gamma-dependent pathways","volume":"33","author":"Mei","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell Biol. Int"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4315","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.73.7.4315-4322.2005","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae augments the oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced death of mouse macrophages by a caspase-independent pathway","volume":"73","author":"Yaraei","year":"2005","journal-title":"Infect. Immun"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"573","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2362.2005.01541.x","article-title":"Azithromycin reduces Chlamydia pneumoniae-induced attenuation of eNOS and cGMP production by endothelial cells","volume":"35","author":"Bouwman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Invest"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1167","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.0312151","article-title":"Platelets: Key players in vascular inflammation","volume":"92","author":"Projahn","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2007.03.024","article-title":"Platelet activation triggered by Chlamydia pneumoniae is antagonized by 12-lipoxygenase inhibitors but not cyclooxygenase inhibitors","volume":"566","author":"Andersson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1159\/000324553","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae induces chemokine expression by platelets in patients with atherosclerosis","volume":"20","author":"Taha","year":"2011","journal-title":"Med. Princ. Pract"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2010.3502","article-title":"Critical role of the nitric oxide\/reactive oxygen species balance in endothelial progenitor dysfunction","volume":"15","author":"Fleissner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox. Signal"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1093\/cvr\/cvp150","article-title":"Chlamydia heat shock protein 60 decreases expression of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in human and porcine coronary artery endothelial cells","volume":"83","author":"Chen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cardiovasc. Res"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.immunol.22.012703.104644","article-title":"Autoimmune and inflammatory mechanisms in atherosclerosis","volume":"22","author":"Wick","year":"2004","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1086\/498617","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae alters mildly oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced cell death in human endothelial cells, leading to necrosis rather than apoptosis","volume":"193","author":"Nazzal","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"218","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1681.2011.05657.x","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae induces a pro-inflammatory phenotype in murine vascular smooth muscle cells independently of elevating reactive oxygen species","volume":"39","author":"Rivera","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"710","DOI":"10.1161\/01.RES.0000095720.46043.F2","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae stimulates proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells through induction of endogenous heat shock protein 60","volume":"93","author":"Hirono","year":"2003","journal-title":"Circ. Res"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2012.07.005","article-title":"Chlamydophila (Chlamydia) pneumoniae infection promotes vascular smooth muscle cell adhesion and migration through IQ domain GTPase-activating protein 1","volume":"53","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"244","DOI":"10.1161\/hh1501.094184","article-title":"Chlamydia pneumoniae and chlamydial heat shock protein 60 stimulate proliferation of human vascular smooth muscle cells via toll-like receptor 4 and p44\/p42 mitogen-activated protein kinase activation","volume":"89","author":"Sasu","year":"2001","journal-title":"Circ. Res"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2005.05.073","article-title":"Resveratrol and curcumin reduce the respiratory burst of Chlamydia-primed THP-1 cells","volume":"333","author":"Serteyn","year":"2005","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2004.10.155","article-title":"Effects of COX-2 inhibitors on ROS produced by Chlamydia pneumoniae-primed human promonocytic cells (THP-1)","volume":"325","author":"Dogne","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000083367.93022.78","article-title":"Hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibition reduces Chlamydia pneumoniae-induced cell interaction and activation","volume":"108","author":"Dechend","year":"2003","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1556\/AMicr.57.2010.2.7","article-title":"Induced expression of lectin-like oxidized ldl receptor-1 in vascular smooth muscle cells following Chlamydia pneumoniae infection and its down-regulation by fluvastatin","volume":"57","author":"Prochnau","year":"2010","journal-title":"Acta Microbiol. Immunol. Hung"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tips.2013.03.007","article-title":"Oxidative stress in vascular disease and its pharmacological prevention","volume":"34","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Trends Pharmacol. Sci"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1495","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa040583","article-title":"Intensive versus moderate lipid lowering with statins after acute coronary syndromes","volume":"350","author":"Cannon","year":"2004","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2358","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2009.10.005","article-title":"Reduction in recurrent cardiovascular events with intensive lipid-lowering statin therapy compared with moderate lipid-lowering statin therapy after acute coronary syndromes from the PROVE IT-TIMI 22 (Pravastatin or Atorvastatin Evaluation and Infection Therapy-Thrombolysis In Myocardial Infarction 22) trial","volume":"54","author":"Murphy","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"421","DOI":"10.1177\/1538574410363833","article-title":"Statin therapy\u2014Part II: Clinical considerations for cardiovascular disease","volume":"44","author":"Sadowitz","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vasc. Endovascular. Surg"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/14\/7\/15105\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:48:06Z","timestamp":1760219286000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/14\/7\/15105"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,19]]},"references-count":107,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2013,7]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms140715105"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms140715105","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2013,7,19]]}}}