{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,25]],"date-time":"2026-02-25T11:27:04Z","timestamp":1772018824248,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":109,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,12,22]],"date-time":"2014-12-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1419206400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Biomarkers are objective tools with an important role for diagnosis, prognosis and therapy optimization in patients with heart failure (HF). To date, natriuretic peptides are closest to optimal biomarker standards for clinical implications in HF. Therefore,  the efforts to identify and test new biomarkers in HF are reasonable and justified. Along the natural history of HF, cardiac cachexia may develop, and once at this stage, patient performance and prognosis is particularly poor. For these reasons, numerous biomarkers reflecting hormonal, inflammatory and oxidative stress pathways have been investigated, but only a few convey relevant information. The complex pathophysiology of HF appears far too complex to be embraced by a single biomarker; thus, a combined approach appears reasonable. With these considerations, we have reviewed the recent developments in the field to highlight key candidates with diagnostic, prognostic and therapy optimization properties, either alone or in combination.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms151223878","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,12,22]],"date-time":"2014-12-22T08:31:01Z","timestamp":1419237061000},"page":"23878-23896","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":37,"title":["Emerging Biomarkers in Heart Failure and Cardiac Cachexia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Goran","family":"Loncar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Hospital Zvezdara, Cardiology Department, Dimitrija Tucovica 161, Belgrade 11000, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Daniel","family":"Omersa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute of Public Health, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Natasa","family":"Cvetinovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Hospital Zvezdara, Cardiology Department, Dimitrija Tucovica 161, Belgrade 11000, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Aleksandra","family":"Arandjelovic","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinical Hospital Zvezdara, Cardiology Department, Dimitrija Tucovica 161, Belgrade 11000, Serbia"},{"name":"School of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade 11000, Serbia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mitja","family":"Lainscak","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiology, General Hospital Celje, Oblakova 5, Celje 3000, Slovenia"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,12,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1093\/eurjhf\/hfs105","article-title":"ESC guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure 2012: The task force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure 2012 of the European Society of Cardiology. Developed in collaboration with the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC","volume":"14","author":"McMurray","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1210\/edrv-6-2-107","article-title":"The heart and the atrial natriuretic factor","volume":"6","author":"Cantin","year":"1985","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1007\/s00059-009-3316-4","article-title":"Biomarkers for chronic heart failure: Diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic challenges","volume":"34","author":"Lainscak","year":"2009","journal-title":"Herz"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2442","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2012.12.014","article-title":"Biomarkers and diagnostics in heart failure","volume":"1832","author":"Gaggin","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"e99","article-title":"National academy of clinical biochemistry laboratory medicine practice guidelines: Clinical utilization of cardiac biomarker testing in heart failure","volume":"116","author":"Tang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2011.165720","article-title":"Emerging biomarkers in heart failure","volume":"58","author":"Januzzi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2062","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2010.02.025","article-title":"Mid-region pro-hormone markers for diagnosis and prognosis in acute dyspnea: Results from the BACH (Biomarkers in Acute Heart Failure) trial","volume":"55","author":"Maisel","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2197","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehs136","article-title":"Mid-regional pro-atrial natriuretic peptide and pro-adrenomedullin testing for the diagnostic and prognostic evaluation of patients with acute dyspnoea","volume":"33","author":"Shah","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000047274.66749.FE","article-title":"Identification of serum soluble ST2 receptor as a novel heart failure biomarker","volume":"107","author":"Weinberg","year":"2003","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"827","DOI":"10.1038\/nrd2660","article-title":"The IL-33\/ST2 pathway: Therapeutic target and novel biomarker","volume":"7","author":"Kakkar","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Drug Discov."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.187.5.787","article-title":"Selective expression of a stable cell surface molecule on type 2 but not type 1 helper T cells","volume":"187","author":"Xu","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"684","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.109.873240","article-title":"Interleukin-33 prevents apoptosis and improves survival after experimental myocardial infarction through ST2 signaling","volume":"2","author":"Seki","year":"2009","journal-title":"Circ. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2961","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000038705.69871.D9","article-title":"Expression and regulation of ST2, an interleukin-1 receptor family member, in cardiomyocytes and myocardial infarction","volume":"106","author":"Weinberg","year":"2002","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2007.05.014","article-title":"Measurement of the interleukin family member ST2 in patients with acute dyspnea: Results from the PRIDE (Pro-Brain Natriuretic Peptide Investigation of Dyspnea in the Emergency Department) study","volume":"50","author":"Januzzi","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2008.07.042","article-title":"Characteristics of the novel interleukin family biomarker ST2 in patients with acute heart failure","volume":"52","author":"Rehman","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"732","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cardfail.2008.06.415","article-title":"Serial sampling of ST2 predicts 90-day mortality following destabilized heart failure","volume":"14","author":"Boisot","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Card. Fail."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1536\/ihj.13-371","article-title":"Elevated soluble ST2 and depression increased the risk of all-cause mortality and hospitalization in patients with heart failure","volume":"55","author":"Xu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2009.08.010","article-title":"Analytical and clinical evaluation of a novel high-sensitivity assay for measurement of soluble ST2 in human plasma\u2014The Presage\u2122 ST2 assay","volume":"409","author":"Dieplinger","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cardfail.2012.01.008","article-title":"ST2 has diagnostic and prognostic utility for all-cause mortality and heart failure in patients presenting to the emergency department with chest pain","volume":"18","author":"Aldous","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Card. Fail."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"1171","article-title":"Soluble ST2 monitoring provides additional risk stratification for outpatients with decompensated heart failure","volume":"63","author":"Januzzi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"79","article-title":"Comparative study of galectin-3 and B-type natriuretic peptide as biomarkers for the diagnosis of heart failure","volume":"11","author":"Yin","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Geriatr. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"95","article-title":"Plasma concentration of growth-differentiation factor-15 in children with congenital heart disease: Relation ship to heart function and diagnostic value in heart failure","volume":"15","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Zhongguo Dang Dai Er Ke Za Zhi"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.2353\/ajpath.2008.070726","article-title":"Galectin-3 expression and secretion links macrophages to the promotion of renal fibrosis","volume":"172","author":"Henderson","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3121","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000147181.65298.4D","article-title":"Galectin-3 marks activated macrophages in failure-prone hypertrophied hearts and contributes to cardiac dysfunction","volume":"110","author":"Sharma","year":"2004","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.112.971168","article-title":"Genetic and pharmacological inhibition of galectin-3 prevents cardiac remodeling by interfering with myocardial fibrogenesis","volume":"6","author":"Yu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Circ. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1425","DOI":"10.1515\/cclm-2014-0278","article-title":"Practical experience using galectin-3 in heart failure","volume":"52","author":"McCullough","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Chem. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"60","DOI":"10.3109\/07853890.2010.538080","article-title":"Predictive value of plasma galectin-3 levels in heart failure with reduced and preserved ejection fraction","volume":"43","author":"Lok","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2006.03.061","article-title":"Utility of amino-terminal pro-brain natriuretic peptide, galectin-3, and apelin for the evaluation of patients with acute heart failure","volume":"48","author":"Januzzi","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1007\/s00392-010-0125-y","article-title":"Prognostic value of galectin-3, a novel marker of fibrosis, in patients with chronic heart failure: Data from the DEAL-HF study","volume":"99","author":"Lok","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Res. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cardfail.2014.07.018","article-title":"Plasma galectin-3 and heart failure outcomes in MADIT-CRT (Multicenter Automatic Defibrillator Implantation Trial-Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy)","volume":"20","author":"Stolen","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Card. Fail."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2290","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehs077","article-title":"Galectin-3 predicts response to statin therapy in the controlled rosuvastatin multinational trial in heart failure (CORONA)","volume":"33","author":"Gullestad","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjcard.2014.05.062","article-title":"Effect of spironolactone on 30-day death and heart failure rehospitalization (from the COACH Study)","volume":"114","author":"Maisel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1515\/cclm-2014-0222","article-title":"Novel biomarkers in acute heart failure: MR-pro-adrenomedullin","volume":"52","author":"Peacock","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Chem. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1823","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2005.051110","article-title":"Measurement of midregional proadrenomedullin in plasma with an immunoluminometric assay","volume":"51","author":"Morgenthaler","year":"2005","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bahrmann, P., Bahrmann, A., Hofner, B., Christ, M., Achenbach, S., Sieber, C.C., and Bertsch, T. (2014). Multiple biomarker strategy for improved diagnosis of acute heart failure in older patients presenting to the emergency department. Acute Cardiovasc. Care.","DOI":"10.1177\/2048872614541904"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.3109\/07853890.2013.874662","article-title":"Predictive value of midregional pro-adrenomedullin compared to natriuretic peptides for incident cardiovascular disease and heart failure in the population-based FINRISK 1997 cohort","volume":"46","author":"Havulinna","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1007\/s12265-009-9121-x","article-title":"Response of novel biomarkers to BNP infusion in patients with decompensated heart failure: A multimarker paradigm","volume":"2","author":"Miller","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8b","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjcard.2005.03.003","article-title":"Neurohormonal activation in congestive heart failure and the role of vasopressin","volume":"95","author":"Chatterjee","year":"2005","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1447","DOI":"10.1515\/cclm-2014-0379","article-title":"Copeptin (CTproAVP), a new tool for understanding the role of vasopressin in pathophysiology","volume":"52","author":"Bolignano","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Chem. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"312","DOI":"10.1097\/HCO.0000000000000077","article-title":"Emerging biomarkers for acute heart conditions","volume":"29","author":"Vasile","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1457","DOI":"10.1515\/cclm-2014-0207","article-title":"Copeptin decrease from admission to discharge has favorable prognostic value for 90-day events in patients admitted with dyspnea","volume":"52","author":"Vetrone","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Chem. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiochem.2011.11.010","article-title":"Effect of beta blockade on natriuretic peptides and copeptin in elderly patients with heart failure and preserved or reduced ejection fraction: Results from the CIBIS-ELD trial","volume":"45","author":"Loncar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2006.076828","article-title":"Circulating concentrations of growth-differentiation factor 15 in apparently healthy elderly individuals and patients with chronic heart failure as assessed by a new immunoradiometric sandwich assay","volume":"53","author":"Kempf","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2346","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehp261","article-title":"Growth-differentiation factor-15 is an independent marker of cardiovascular dysfunction and disease in the elderly: Results from the Prospective Investigation of the Vasculature in Uppsala Seniors (PIVUS) Study","volume":"30","author":"Lind","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1249","DOI":"10.1093\/eurjhf\/hfs120","article-title":"Circulating growth differentiation factor-15 correlates with myocardial fibrosis in patients with non-ischaemic dilated cardiomyopathy and decreases rapidly after left ventricular assist device support","volume":"14","author":"Lok","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.3109\/1354750X.2010.510580","article-title":"Growth differentiation factor 15 in different stages of heart failure: Potential screening implications","volume":"15","author":"Wang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Biomarkers"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1240","DOI":"10.1093\/eurjhf\/hfs116","article-title":"Growth-differentiation factor-15 improves reclassification for the diagnosis of heart failure with normal ejection fraction in morbid obesity","volume":"14","author":"Baessler","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"831","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjcard.2013.05.013","article-title":"Incremental prognostic power of novel biomarkers (growth-differentiation factor-15, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, galectin-3, and high-sensitivity troponin-T) in patients with advanced chronic heart failure","volume":"112","author":"Lok","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cjca.2013.12.010","article-title":"Growth differentiation factor-15 is a useful prognostic marker in patients with heart failure with preserved ejection fraction","volume":"30","author":"Izumiya","year":"2014","journal-title":"Can. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1007\/s11897-012-0113-9","article-title":"Growth differentiation factor 15 in heart failure: An update","volume":"9","author":"Wollert","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Heart Fail. Rep."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1309","DOI":"10.1093\/eurjhf\/hfq151","article-title":"The novel biomarker growth differentiation factor 15 in heart failure with normal ejection fraction","volume":"12","author":"Stahrenberg","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trsl.2014.04.011","article-title":"Biomarkers in cardiorenal syndromes","volume":"164","author":"Tan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2004.09.061","article-title":"Cystatin-C and mortality in elderly persons with heart failure","volume":"45","author":"Shlipak","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-142-7-200504050-00008","article-title":"Cystatin C concentration as a risk factor for heart failure in older adults","volume":"142","author":"Sarnak","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"404","article-title":"Cystatin C, N-terminal probrain natriuretic peptides and outcomes in acute heart failure with acute kidney injury in a 12-month follow-up: Insights into the cardiorenal syndrome","volume":"19","author":"Ruan","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Res. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1016\/j.acvd.2011.08.003","article-title":"Cystatin C levels are associated with the prognosis of systolic heart failure patients","volume":"104","author":"Gao","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arch. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-145-4-200608150-00003","article-title":"Cystatin C and prognosis for cardiovascular and kidney outcomes in elderly persons without chronic kidney disease","volume":"145","author":"Shlipak","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"825","DOI":"10.7326\/0003-4819-158-11-201306040-00007","article-title":"Evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease: Synopsis of the kidney disease: Improving global outcomes 2012 clinical practice guideline","volume":"158","author":"Stevens","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mehy.2014.07.005","article-title":"Can the difference in serum concentration of urea and cystatin C be used in diagnosis and prognosis of heart failure?","volume":"83","author":"Matana","year":"2014","journal-title":"Med. Hypotheses"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(05)74811-X","article-title":"Neutrophil gelatinase associated lipocalin (NGAL) as a biomarker for acute renal injury after cardiac surgery","volume":"365","author":"Mishra","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1229","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehp088","article-title":"Increased systemic and myocardial expression of neutrophil gelatinaseassociated lipocalin in clinical and experimental heart failure","volume":"30","author":"Yndestad","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1440-1797.2010.01317.x","article-title":"Review: Neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin: A troponin-like biomarker for human acute kidney injury","volume":"15","author":"Devarajan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nephrology"},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"409","article-title":"Biomarkers of cardiorenal syndrome","volume":"71","author":"Kuster","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Biol. Clin."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejheart.2008.07.001","article-title":"Urinary neutrophil gelatinase associated lipocalin (NGAL), a marker of tubular damage, is increased in patients with chronic heart failure","volume":"10","author":"Damman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.3109\/17482941.2014.911915","article-title":"Admission plasma neutrophil gelatinase associated lipocalin (NGAL) predicts worsening renal function during hospitalization and post discharge outcome in patients with acute heart failure","volume":"16","author":"Palazzuoli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acute Card. Care"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.113.000242","article-title":"Prognostic value of plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin for mortality in patients with heart failure","volume":"7","author":"Damman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Circ. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846","DOI":"10.1093\/eurjhf\/hfr087","article-title":"Prognostic utility of plasma neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin in patients with acute heart failure: The NGAL EvaLuation Along with B-type NaTriuretic Peptide in acutely decompensated heart failure (GALLANT) trial","volume":"13","author":"Maisel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cardfail.2009.07.003","article-title":"Serum neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL) in predicting worsening renal function in acute decompensated heart failure","volume":"16","author":"Aghel","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Card. Fail."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1838","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(98)09286-1","article-title":"Endotoxin and immune activation in chronic heart failure: A prospective cohort study","volume":"353","author":"Niebauer","year":"1999","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1555","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)16165-5","article-title":"Procalcitonin-guided antibiotic treatment in heart failure","volume":"363","author":"Sandek","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1915","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajem.2012.04.009","article-title":"Evaluation of mid-regional pro-atrial natriuretic peptide, procalcitonin, and mid-regional pro-adrenomedullin for the diagnosis and risk stratification of dyspneic ED patients","volume":"30","author":"Cinar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Emerg. Med."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R4","DOI":"10.1186\/cc13181","article-title":"Procalcitonin testing for diagnosis and short-term prognosis in bacterial infection complicated by congestive heart failure: A multicenter analysis of 4,698 cases","volume":"18","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crit. Care"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.113.000846","article-title":"Fibrosis marker syndecan-1 and outcome in patients with heart failure with reduced and preserved ejection fraction","volume":"7","author":"Tromp","year":"2014","journal-title":"Circ. Heart Fail."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2538","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/eht152","article-title":"Neurohormonal and clinical sex differences in heart failure","volume":"34","author":"Meyer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_75","first-page":"866","article-title":"Changes and clinical significance of serum level of syndecan-4 protein in patients with chronic congestive heart failure","volume":"29","author":"Ma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Xi Bao Yu Fen Zi Mian Yi Xue Za Zhi"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2054","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfu292","article-title":"Derivation and validation of cutoffs for clinical use of cell cycle arrest biomarkers","volume":"29","author":"Hoste","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. Transplant."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2324","DOI":"10.1002\/pmic.201200455","article-title":"Pilot study identifying myosin heavy chain 7, desmin, insulin-like growth factor 7, and annexin A2 as circulating biomarkers of human heart failure","volume":"13","author":"Chugh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proteomics"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1007\/s12265-013-9522-8","article-title":"Measurement of novel biomarkers to predict chronic heart failure outcomes and left ventricular remodeling","volume":"7","author":"Motiwala","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Cardiovasc. Transl. Res."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kudumula, C.R. (2014). Regulatory noncoding RNAs in cardiovascular disease: Shedding light on \u201cDark Matter\u201d. J. Cardiovasc. Dis., in press.","DOI":"10.18281\/jcvd.2015.1.4"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2014.00015","article-title":"Atrial fibrillation and microRNAs","volume":"5","author":"Santulli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"79","article-title":"MicroRNAs in heart failure: Small molecules with major impact","volume":"2014","author":"Kalozoumi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glob. Cardiol. Sci. Pract."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Braunwald, E. (2014). The war against heart failure: The Lancet lecture. Lancet.","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(14)61889-4"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clnu.2008.06.013","article-title":"Cachexia: A new definition","volume":"7","author":"Evans","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1007\/s13539-013-0105-y","article-title":"Cachexia as a major public health problem: Frequent, costly, and deadly","volume":"4","author":"Farkas","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"476","article-title":"Heart failure-induced cachexia","volume":"100","author":"Okoshi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arq. Bras. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5273(02)00233-4","article-title":"The syndrome of cardiac cachexia","volume":"85","author":"Anker","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiochem.2013.10.025","article-title":"Recent insights on the molecular mechanisms and therapeutic approaches for cardiac cachexia","volume":"47","author":"Martins","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1092","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2014.06.1179","article-title":"Intestinal blood flow in patients with chronic heart failure: A link with bacterial growth, gastrointestinal symptoms, and cachexia","volume":"64","author":"Sandek","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1007\/s13539-014-0157-7","article-title":"Muscle wasting: An overview of recent developments in basic research","volume":"5","author":"Palus","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1007\/s13539-014-0130-5","article-title":"Assessing skeletal muscle mass: Historical overview and state of the art","volume":"5","author":"Heymsfield","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1097\/MED.0b013e3283469505","article-title":"Hormonal consequences and prognosis of chronic heart failure","volume":"18","author":"Attanasio","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1097\/01.sla.0000118561.54919.61","article-title":"Ghrelin: Integrative neuroendocrine peptide in health and disease","volume":"239","author":"Wu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ann. Surg."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4800","DOI":"10.2174\/138161212803216870","article-title":"Clinical application of ghrelin","volume":"18","author":"Strasser","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1016\/j.numecd.2013.04.015","article-title":"Plasma adiponectin in heart failure with and without cachexia: Catabolic signal linking catabolism, symptomatic status, and prognosis","volume":"24","author":"Scherbakov","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutr. Metab. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehm033","article-title":"Increase in serum adiponectin concentration in patients with heart failure and cachexia: Relationship with leptin, other cytokines, and B-type natriuretic peptide","volume":"28","author":"McEntegart","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejim.2013.09.011","article-title":"Association of adiponectin with peripheral muscle status in elderly patients with heart failure","volume":"24","author":"Loncar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1007\/s13539-014-0136-z","article-title":"Highlights from the 7th cachexia conference: Muscle wasting pathophysiological detection and novel treatment strategies","volume":"5","author":"Ebner","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"1","article-title":"C-terminal agrin fragment as a novel diagnostic marker for muscle wasting in patients with chronic heart failure: Results from the studies investigating co-morbidities aggravating heart failure","volume":"5","author":"Steinbeck","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_99","first-page":"295","article-title":"Growth differentiating factor-15 (GDF-15) induces anorexia and cachexia in mice: A novel pathway for cachexia","volume":"4","author":"Lerner","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2014.06.022","article-title":"Biomarkers for cardiac cachexia: Reality or utopia","volume":"436","author":"Martins","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1007\/s13539-013-0120-z","article-title":"Biomarkers of muscle quality: N-terminal propeptide of type III procollagen and C-terminal agrin fragment responses to resistance exercise training in older adults","volume":"5","author":"Fragala","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4224","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2009-1434","article-title":"N-terminal propeptide of type III procollagen as a biomarker of anabolic response to recombinant human GH and testosterone","volume":"94","author":"Bhasin","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1007\/s13539-013-0114-x","article-title":"Type VI collagen turnover-related peptides-novel serological biomarkers of muscle mass and anabolic response to loading in young men","volume":"4","author":"Nedergaard","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s13539-012-0086-2","article-title":"Serological muscle loss biomarkers: An overview of current concepts and future possibilities","volume":"4","author":"Nedergaard","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1007\/s13539-012-0097-z","article-title":"Large-scale isolation of human skeletal muscle satellite cells from post-mortem tissue and development of quantitative assays to evaluate modulators of myogenesis","volume":"4","author":"Scott","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2011.09.079","article-title":"Metabolism and the heart: An overview of muscle, fat, and bone metabolism in heart failure","volume":"162","author":"Loncar","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1007\/s13539-013-0110-1","article-title":"Longitudinal changes in total body creatine pool size and skeletal muscle mass using the d-creatine dilution method","volume":"4","author":"Stimpson","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2011.03.006","article-title":"Multimarker approach for heart failure management: Perspectives and limitations","volume":"64","author":"Giannessi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Takeishi, Y. (2014). Biomarkers in Heart Failure. Int. Heart J.","DOI":"10.1536\/ihj.14-267"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/15\/12\/23878\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T21:11:25Z","timestamp":1760217085000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/15\/12\/23878"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,12,22]]},"references-count":109,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms151223878"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms151223878","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,12,22]]}}}