{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,15]],"date-time":"2026-09-15T19:33:29Z","timestamp":1789500809411,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":179,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2015,8,11]],"date-time":"2015-08-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1439251200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The idiopathic inflammatory myopathies (IIM) constitute a heterogeneous group of chronic disorders that include dermatomyositis (DM), polymyositis (PM), sporadic inclusion body myositis (IBM) and necrotizing autoimmune myopathy (NAM). They represent distinct pathological entities that, most often, share predominant inflammation in muscle tissue. Many of the immunopathogenic processes behind the IIM remain poorly understood, but the crucial role of cytokines as essential regulators of the intramuscular build-up of inflammation is undisputed. This review describes the extensive cytokine network within IIM muscle, characterized by strong expression of Tumor Necrosis Factors (TNF\u03b1, LT\u03b2, BAFF), Interferons (IFN\u03b1\/\u03b2\/\u03b3), Interleukins (IL-1\/6\/12\/15\/18\/23) and Chemokines (CXCL9\/10\/11\/13, CCL2\/3\/4\/8\/19\/21). Current therapeutic strategies and the exploration of potential disease modifying agents based on manipulation of the cytokine network are provided. Reported responses to anti-TNF\u03b1 treatment in IIM are conflicting and new onset DM\/PM has been described after administration of anti-TNF\u03b1 agents to treat other diseases, pointing to the complex effects of TNF\u03b1 neutralization. Treatment with anti-IFN\u03b1 has been shown to suppress the IFN type 1 gene signature in DM\/PM patients and improve muscle strength. Beneficial effects of anti-IL-1 and anti-IL-6 therapy have also been reported. Cytokine profiling in IIM aids the development of therapeutic strategies and provides approaches to subtype patients for treatment outcome prediction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms160818683","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,8,11]],"date-time":"2015-08-11T10:38:57Z","timestamp":1439289537000},"page":"18683-18713","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":25,"title":["Scanning for Therapeutic Targets within the Cytokine Network of Idiopathic Inflammatory Myopathies"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9403-4401","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Boel","family":"De Paepe","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuromuscular Reference Center, Laboratory for Neuropathology, 10K12E,  Ghent University Hospital, 9000 Ghent, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jana","family":"Zsch\u00fcntzsch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, University Medical Centre, G\u00f6ttingen University,  37075 G\u00f6ttingen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,8,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2011.05.013","article-title":"Pathogenesis and therapies of immune-mediated myopathies","volume":"11","author":"Dalakas","year":"2012","journal-title":"Autoimm. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2905","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI118749","article-title":"Differential expression of perforin in muscle-infiltrating T cells in polymyositis and dermatomyositis","volume":"97","author":"Goebels","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1097\/NEN.0b013e31826183c8","article-title":"Pathogenic considerations in sporadic inclusion-body myositis, a degenerative muscle disease associated with aging and abnomalities of myoproteostasis","volume":"71","author":"Askanas","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1007\/s13317-014-0062-2","article-title":"Muscle biopsy features of idiopathic inflammatory myopathies and differential diagnosis","volume":"5","author":"Vattemi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Auto Immun. Highlights"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1016\/j.it.2005.05.003","article-title":"Immunobiology of muscle: Advances in understanding an immunological microenvironment","volume":"26","author":"Wiendl","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends Immunol."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"659","article-title":"Cytokines, chemokines, and adhesion molecules in inflammatory myopathies","volume":"6","author":"Civatte","year":"2003","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2249.1998.00664.x","article-title":"A variety of cytokines and immunologically relevant surface molecules are expressed by normal human skeletal muscle cells under proinflammatory stimuli","volume":"113","author":"Nagaraju","year":"1998","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e13","DOI":"10.1186\/2044-5040-3-13","article-title":"Idiopathic inflammatory myopathies: Pathogenic mechanisms of muscle weakness","volume":"3","author":"Rayavarapu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Skelet. Muscle"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2015.05.023","article-title":"HMGB1 and RAGE in skeletal muscle inflammation: Implications for protein accumulation in inclusion body myositis","volume":"271","author":"Muth","year":"2015","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198602063140601","article-title":"Microvascular deposition of complement membrane attack complex in dermatomyositis","volume":"314","author":"Kissel","year":"1986","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e249","DOI":"10.1186\/ar3531","article-title":"Type I interferon pathway in adult and juvenile dermatomyositis","volume":"13","author":"Baechler","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3436","DOI":"10.1002\/art.24936","article-title":"Interleukin-6 and type I interferon-regulated genes and chemokines mark disease activity in dermatomyositis","volume":"60","author":"Bilgic","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1006\/bbrc.1997.7414","article-title":"Interleukin-15 stimulates C2 skeletal myoblast differentiation","volume":"239","author":"Quinn","year":"1997","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6593","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.164.12.6593","article-title":"Increased CD40 expression on muscle cells of polymyositis and dermatomyositis: Role of CD40\u2013CD40 ligand interaction in IL-6, IL-8, IL-15, and monocyte chemoattactant protein-1 production","volume":"164","author":"Sugiura","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2011-200495","article-title":"Effects of immunosuppressive treatment on interleukin-15 and interleukin-15 receptor \u03b1 expression in muscle tissue of patients with polymyositis or dermatomyositis","volume":"71","author":"Zong","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.4081\/reumatismo.2014.746","article-title":"Possible interplay between interleukin-15 and interleukin-17 into the pathogenesis of idiopathic inflammatory myopathies","volume":"66","author":"Notarnicola","year":"2014","journal-title":"Reumatismo"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2196","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keu258","article-title":"Cytokine profiles in polymyositis and dermatomyositis complicated by rapidly progressive or chronic interstitial lung disease","volume":"53","author":"Gono","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1002\/art.11428","article-title":"Anatomic localization of immature and mature dendritic cell subsets in dermatomyositis and polymyositis: Interaction with chemokines and Th1 cytokine-producing cells","volume":"50","author":"Page","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2008.12.024","article-title":"CCR7+ myeloid dendritic cells together with CCR7+ T cells and CCR7+ macrophages invade CCL19+ nonnecrotic muscle fibers in inclusion body myositis","volume":"279","author":"Tateyama","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chung, T., Christopher-Stine, L., Paik, J.J., Corse, A., and Mammen, A.L. (2015). The composition of cellular infiltrates in anti-HMG-coA reductase-associated myopathy. Muscle Nerve.","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.24642"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1038\/ncprheum0140","article-title":"Mechanisms of disease: Signaling pathways and immunobiology of inflammatory myopathies","volume":"2","author":"Dalakas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Clin. Pract. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1228","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awn053","article-title":"Interrelation of inflammation and APP in sIBM: IL-1\u03b2 induces accumumation of \u03b2-amyloid in skeletal muscle","volume":"131","author":"Schmidt","year":"2008","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3772","DOI":"10.1093\/hmg\/ddu090","article-title":"Statistical insights into major human muscular diseases","volume":"23","author":"Gupta","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Mol. Genet."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.184.3.963","article-title":"Chemokine receptor specific for IP10 and MIG: Structure, function, and expression in activated T-lymphocytes","volume":"184","author":"Loetscher","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-5728(03)00218-2","article-title":"Expression of IFN-\u03b3-inducible chemokines in inclusion body myositis","volume":"141","author":"Raju","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1339","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1201-1339","article-title":"Stromal-derived factor-1 in human tumors recruits and alters the function of plasmacytoid precursor dendritic cells","volume":"7","author":"Zou","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1002\/1521-4141(200201)32:1<231::AID-IMMU231>3.0.CO;2-8","article-title":"Sequential involvement of CCR2 and CCR6 ligands for immature dendritic cell recruitment: Possible role at inflamed epithelial surfaces","volume":"32","author":"Vanbervliet","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmd.2004.01.001","article-title":"Localization of the \u03b1-chemokine SDF-1 and its receptor CXCR4 in idiopathic inflammatory myopathies","volume":"14","author":"Schroder","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuromuscul. Disord."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1788","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.1830270729","article-title":"The chemokine SDF-1, stromal cell-derived factor 1, attracts early stage B cell precursors via the chemokine receptor CXCR4","volume":"27","author":"Rolink","year":"1997","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.187.4.655","article-title":"B cell-attracting chemokine 1, a human CXC chemokine expressed in lymphoid tissues, selectively attracts B lymphocytes via BLR1\/CXCR5","volume":"187","author":"Legler","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1160","DOI":"10.1002\/art.24411","article-title":"Extranodal lymphoid microstructures in inflamed muscle and disease severity of new-onset juvenile dermatomyositis","volume":"60","author":"Vallejo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1189\/jlb.0602325","article-title":"The many faces of macrophage activation","volume":"73","author":"Mosser","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Leukoc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2880","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI116533","article-title":"Analysis of T cell receptor repertoire of muscle-infiltrating T lymphocytes in polymyositis: Restricted V\u03b1\u03b2 rearrangements may indicate antigen-driven selection","volume":"91","author":"Mantegazza","year":"1993","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2487","article-title":"Epigenetic control of T-helper-cell differentiation","volume":"9","author":"Wilson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e88788","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0088788","article-title":"Th1 response and systemic Treg deficiency in inclusion body myositis","volume":"9","author":"Allenbach","year":"2014","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2012.08.033","article-title":"Immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy is characterized by a specific Th1-M1 polarized immune profile","volume":"181","author":"Preusse","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-005-0989-5","article-title":"\u03b1-chemokine receptors CXCR1\u20133 and their ligands in idiopathic inflammatory myopathies","volume":"109","author":"Martin","year":"2005","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1007\/s11926-012-0242-x","article-title":"Interleukin-17 in inflammatory myopathies","volume":"14","author":"Tournadre","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Rheumatol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.3109\/03009742.2010.517215","article-title":"Interleukin-17 and interleukin-23 in patients with polymyositis and dermatomyositis","volume":"40","author":"Shen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Scand. J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajpath.2011.12.027","article-title":"TWEAK in inclusion body myositis muscle: Possible pathogenic role of a cytokine inhibiting myogenesis","volume":"180","author":"Morosetti","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"943","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmd.2014.06.432","article-title":"The role of interleukin-17 in immune-mediated inflammatory myopathies and possible therapeutic implications","volume":"24","author":"Moran","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuromuscul. Disord."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20041367","article-title":"Enhanced autoantigen expression in regenerating muscle cells in idiopathic inflammatory myopathy","volume":"201","author":"Nagaraju","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"664","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.20464","article-title":"Interferon-\u03b1\/\u03b2-mediated innate immune mechanisms in dermatomyositis","volume":"57","author":"Greenberg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmd.2012.04.012","article-title":"The multifaceted character of lymphotoxin \u03b2 in inflammatory myopathies","volume":"22","author":"Creus","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuromuscul. Disord."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2008.04.025","article-title":"Lymphoid chemokines in chronic neuroinflammation","volume":"198","author":"Aloisi","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.21805","article-title":"Interferon-stimulated gene 15 (ISG15) conjugates proteins in dermatomyositis muscle with perifascicular atrophy","volume":"67","author":"Salajegheh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2012.04.006","article-title":"The expression of BAFF in the muscles of patients with dermatomyositis","volume":"249","author":"Baek","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e454","DOI":"10.1186\/s13075-014-0454-8","article-title":"Expression of BAFF receptors in muscle tissue of myositis patients with anti-Jo-1 or anti-Ro52\/anti-Ro60 autoantibodies","volume":"16","author":"Krystufkova","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/PL00007850","article-title":"Clinical and serological characteristics of 125 Dutch myositis patients. Myositis specific autoantibodies aid in the differential diagnosis of the idiopathic inflammatory myopathies","volume":"249","author":"Hengstman","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"796","DOI":"10.1002\/art.1780280711","article-title":"The association between Mi-2 antibodies and dermatomyositis","volume":"28","author":"Targoff","year":"1985","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1007\/s13317-014-0060-4","article-title":"Myositis autoantibodies and clinical phenotypes","volume":"5","author":"Ghirardello","year":"2014","journal-title":"Auto Immun. Highlights"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2757","DOI":"10.1002\/art.27572","article-title":"A novel autoantibody recognizing 200-kd and 100-kd proteins is associated with an immune-mediated necrotizing myopathy","volume":"62","author":"Hong","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1635","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.2006.052191","article-title":"Anti-signal recognition particle autoantibodies: Marker of a necrotising myopathy","volume":"65","author":"Hengstman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.23840","article-title":"Cytosolic 5\u02b9-nucleotidase 1A autoimmunity in sporadic inclusion body myositis","volume":"73","author":"Larman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.23822","article-title":"Autoantibodies to cytosolic 5\u02b9-nucleotidase 1A in inclusion body myositis","volume":"73","author":"Pluk","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_56","first-page":"1671","article-title":"Value of corticotherapy and its progress in the treatment of dermatomyositis","volume":"64","author":"Basset","year":"1956","journal-title":"Presse Med."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02950398","article-title":"Dermatomyositis successfully treated by prednisone","volume":"391","author":"Micks","year":"1958","journal-title":"Irish J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nmd.2010.03.011","article-title":"Oral dexamethasone pulse therapy versus daily prednisolone in sub-acute onset myositis, a randomised clinical trial","volume":"20","author":"Hoogendijk","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuromuscul. Disord."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gordon, P.A., Winer, J.B., Hoogendijk, J.E., and Choy, E.H.S. (2012). Immunosuppressant and immunomodulatory treatment for dermatomyositis and polymyositis. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.","DOI":"10.1002\/14651858.CD003643.pub4"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2014.253","article-title":"Intravenous immunoglobulin in neurology-mode of action and clinical efficacy","volume":"11","author":"Nimmerjahn","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1993","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199312303292704","article-title":"A controlled trial of high-dose intravenous immune globulin infusions as treatment for dermatomyositis","volume":"329","author":"Dalakas","year":"1993","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1002\/art.10053","article-title":"Results and long-term followup of intravenous immunoglobulin infusions in chronic, refractory polymyositis: An open study with thirty-five adult patients","volume":"46","author":"Cherin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3166","DOI":"10.2174\/138161211798157540","article-title":"Update on intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIg) mechanisms of action and off- label use in autoimmune diseases","volume":"17","author":"Katz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"536","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.32.6.536","article-title":"Methotrexate therapy in polymyositis","volume":"32","author":"Arnett","year":"1973","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1159\/000114893","article-title":"Methotrexate treatment in dermatomyositis","volume":"16","author":"Siegal","year":"1977","journal-title":"Eur. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1007\/s10067-013-2207-5","article-title":"Antisynthetase antibody syndrome: Case report and review of the literature","volume":"32","author":"Uribe","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.54.11.1007","article-title":"Cyclosporin in the management of polymyositis and dermatomyositis","volume":"54","author":"Lueck","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/S0162-3109(00)00188-0","article-title":"Mycophenolate mofetil and its mechanisms of action","volume":"47","author":"Allison","year":"2000","journal-title":"Immunopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keh499","article-title":"Mycophenolate mofetil (CellCept): An alternative therapy for autoimmune inflammatory myopathy","volume":"44","author":"Majithia","year":"2005","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1002\/mus.20543","article-title":"Mycophenolate mofetil and tacrolimus: New therapeutic options in neuroimmunological diseases","volume":"34","author":"Hartung","year":"2006","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S42","DOI":"10.1177\/096120330501400109","article-title":"Mycophenolate mofetil and neurological diseases","volume":"14","author":"Vermersch","year":"2005","journal-title":"Lupus"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keh082","article-title":"Intravenous cyclophosphamide pulse therapy in juvenile dermatomyositis. A review of efficacy and safety","volume":"43","author":"Riley","year":"2004","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/s11926-005-0061-4","article-title":"Interstitial lung disease in polymyositis and dermatomyositis","volume":"7","author":"Schnabel","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Rheumatol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1002\/art.37754","article-title":"Rituximab in the treatment of refractory adult and juvenile dermatomyositis and adult polymyositis: A randomized, placebo-phase trial","volume":"65","author":"Oddis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2497","DOI":"10.1002\/art.38018","article-title":"Rituximab in refractory and relapsed dermatomyositis and polymyositis: Comment on the article by Oddis et al.","volume":"65","author":"Cuttner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1630","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keu024","article-title":"Rituximab therapy in patients with refractory dermatomyositis or polymyositis: Differential effects in a real-life population","volume":"53","author":"Unger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andersson, H., Sem, M., Lund, M.B., Aal\u00f8kken, T.M., G\u00fcnther, A., Walle-Hansen, R., Garen, T., and Molberg, \u00d8. (2015). Long-term experience with rituximab in anti-synthetase syndrome-related interstitial lung disease. Rheumatology.","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/kev004"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Benveniste, O., Stenzel, W., Hilton-Jones, D., Sandri, M., Boyer, O., and van Engelen, B.G.M. (2015). Amyloid deposits and inflammatory infiltrates in sporadic inclusion body myositis: The inflammatory egg comes before the degenerative chicken. Acta Neuropathol.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-015-1384-5"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3176","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awr213","article-title":"Long-term observational study of sporadic inclusion body myositis","volume":"134","author":"Benveniste","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1982.00510240022006","article-title":"Inclusion body myositis. A corticosteroid-resistant idiopathic inflammatory myopathy","volume":"39","author":"Danon","year":"1982","journal-title":"Arch. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"712","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.48.3.712","article-title":"Treatment of inclusion-body myositis with IVIg: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study","volume":"48","author":"Dalakas","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1007\/s004150050005","article-title":"High-dose immunoglobulin therapy in sporadic inclusion body myositis: A double-blind, placebo-controlled study","volume":"247","author":"Walter","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S256","DOI":"10.1007\/s10072-003-0090-6","article-title":"High-dose intravenous immunoglobulin in inflammatory myopathies: Experience based on controlled clinical trials","volume":"24","author":"Dalakas","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.10121","article-title":"Comparison of weakness progression in inclusion body myositis during treatment with methotrexate or placebo","volume":"51","author":"Badrising","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1212\/01.WNL.0000071852.27182.C7","article-title":"Anti-T-lymphocyte globulin treatment in inclusion body myositis: A randomized pilot study","volume":"61","author":"Lindberg","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-510X(01)00478-6","article-title":"Mycophenolate (CellCept) treatment of myasthenia gravis, chronic inflammatory polyneuropathy and inclusion body myositis","volume":"185","author":"Mowzoon","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1536","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awp104","article-title":"Effect of Alemtuzumab (CAMPATH 1-H) in patients with inclusion-body myositis","volume":"132","author":"Dalakas","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2239","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000001070","article-title":"Treatment of sporadic inclusion body myositis with bimagrumab","volume":"83","author":"Amato","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.3109\/10428194.2012.728597","article-title":"Molecular mechanism of action of immune-modulatory drugs thalidomide, lenalidomide and pomalidomide in multiple myeloma","volume":"54","author":"Zhu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Leuk. Lymph"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669","DOI":"10.3892\/etm.2013.1457","article-title":"Function of the transforming growth factor \u03b21\/c Jun N terminal kinase signaling pathway in the action of thalidomide on a rat model of pulmonary fibrosis","volume":"7","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Exp. Ther. Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1456","DOI":"10.2174\/156802612801784443","article-title":"TNF \u03b1 signaling beholds thalidomide saga: A review of mechanistic role of TNF-\u03b1 signaling under thalidomide","volume":"12","author":"Majumder","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3238","DOI":"10.1021\/jm9603328","article-title":"Structural modifications of thalidomide produce analogs with enhanced tumor necrosis factor inhibitory activity","volume":"39","author":"Muller","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(62)91248-5","article-title":"Thalidomide and congenital abnormalities","volume":"1","author":"Speirs","year":"1962","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1565","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199911183412102","article-title":"Antitumor activity of thalidomide in refractory multiple myeloma","volume":"341","author":"Singhal","year":"1999","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e6","DOI":"10.1186\/1546-0096-8-6","article-title":"Efficacy of thalidomide in a girl with inflammatory calcinosis, a severe complication of juvenile dermatomyositis","volume":"8","author":"Miyamae","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatr. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-9987.2009.00689.x","article-title":"Staphylococcus protein A-based extracorporeal immunoadsorption and thalidomide in the treatment of skin manifestation of dermatomyositis: A case report","volume":"13","author":"Sebastiani","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ther. Apher. Dial."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.2174\/187152011795347487","article-title":"Lenalidomide\u2014Current understanding of mechanistic properties","volume":"11","author":"Tageja","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anti-Cancer Agents Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"964","DOI":"10.1002\/art.23383","article-title":"Golimumab in patients with methotrexate: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging study","volume":"58","author":"Kay","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/ken074","article-title":"Effectiveness of infliximab in the treatment of refractory juvenile dermatomyositis with calcinosis","volume":"47","author":"Riley","year":"2008","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1670","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.2007.077974","article-title":"A high incidence of disease flares in an open pilot study of inflammatory myopathies","volume":"67","author":"Dastmalchi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Ann. Rheumatol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1159\/000070852","article-title":"Successful treatment of dermatomyositis and polymyositis with anti-tumor-necrosis-factor-\u03b1: Preliminary observations","volume":"50","author":"Hengstman","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eur. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1159\/000079547","article-title":"Treatment of dermatomyositis and polymyositis with anti-tumor necrosis factor-\u03b1: Long-term follow-up","volume":"52","author":"Hengstman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1159\/000114036","article-title":"Open-label trial of anti-TNF-\u03b1 in dermato- and polymyositis treated concomitantly with methotrexate","volume":"59","author":"Hengstman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keh079","article-title":"Refractory polymyositis responding to infliximab: Extended follow-up","volume":"43","author":"Labioche","year":"2004","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"562","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keh539","article-title":"Advanced refractory polymyositis responding to infliximab","volume":"44","author":"Anandacoomarasamy","year":"2005","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2455","DOI":"10.1007\/s00296-012-2653-4","article-title":"Efficacy of infliximab in the treatment for dermatomyositis with acute interstitial pneumonia: A study of fourteen cases and literature review","volume":"33","author":"Chen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rheumatol. Int."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.2005.048744","article-title":"Possible role for tumour necrosis factor inhibitors in the treatment of resistant dermatomyositis and polymyositis: A retrospective study of eight patients","volume":"65","author":"Efthimiou","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.22477","article-title":"A randomized, pilot trial of etanercept in dermatomyositis","volume":"70","author":"Amato","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keh062","article-title":"Treatment of myositis with etanercept\/Enbrel\u00ae a recombinant human soluble fusionprotein of TNF-\u03b1 type II receptor and IgG1","volume":"43","author":"Sprott","year":"2004","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S123","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0000192258.32408.54","article-title":"Pilot trial of etanercept in the treatment of inclusion-body myositis","volume":"66","author":"Barohn","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_111","first-page":"1802","article-title":"Use of etanercept in the treatment of dermatomyositis: A case series","volume":"33","author":"Iannone","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1002\/acr.22198","article-title":"Pilot study of etanercept in patients with refractory juvenile dermatomyositis","volume":"66","author":"Ferguson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arthritis Care Res."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2012-202794","article-title":"A phase 1b clinical trial evaluating sifalimumab, an anti-IFN-\u03b1 monclonal antibody, shows target neutralization of a type I IFN signature in blood of dermatomyositis and polymyositis patients","volume":"73","author":"Higgs","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"The Muscle Study Group (2001). Randomized pilot trial of \u03b2INF1a (avonex) in patients with inclusion body myositis. Neurology, 57, 1566\u20131570.","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.57.9.1566"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2012-202857","article-title":"Anakinra treatment in patients with refractory inflammatory myopathies and possible predictive response biomarkers: A mechanistic study with 12 months follow-up","volume":"73","author":"Zong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2013.08.007","article-title":"The effect of anakinra, an IL1 receptor antagonist, in patients with sporadic inclusion body myositis (sIBM): A small pilot study","volume":"334","author":"Kosmidis","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbspin.2007.07.010","article-title":"Antisynthetase syndrome with refractory polyarthritis and fever successfully treated with the IL-1 receptor antagonist, anakinra: A case report","volume":"75","author":"Furlan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Jt. Bone Spine"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1344","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/ker152","article-title":"Therapeutic effect of tocilizumab on two patients with polymyositis","volume":"50","author":"Narazaki","year":"2011","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1177\/002215540104900807","article-title":"The role of tumor necrosis factor-\u03b1 (TNF-\u03b1) in skeletal muscle regeneration: Studies in TNF-\u03b1 (\u2212\/\u2212) and TNF-\u03b1 (\u2212\/\u2212) LT-\u03b1 (\u2212\/\u2212) mice","volume":"49","author":"Collins","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Histochem. Cytochem."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"342","DOI":"10.1097\/00005072-199603000-00009","article-title":"Cytokine expression profile in idiopathic inflammatory myopathies","volume":"55","author":"Tews","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Neuropathol. Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1744","DOI":"10.1002\/art.1780371206","article-title":"Elevated serum levels of interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in polymyositis\/dermatomyositis: A biological marker of disease activity with a possible role in the lack of acute-phase protein response","volume":"37","author":"Gabay","year":"1994","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_122","first-page":"239","article-title":"Immunolocalization of tumor necrosis factor-\u03b1 and its receptors in inflammatory myopathies","volume":"9","author":"Meire","year":"1999","journal-title":"Neuromuscul. Disord."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S1357-2725(01)00097-8","article-title":"Tumor necrosis factor-\u03b1 converting enzyme","volume":"34","author":"Black","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.00-0371fje","article-title":"Reactive oxygen species mediate tumor necrosis factor \u03b1-converting, enzyme-dependent ectodomain shedding induced by phorbol myristate acetate","volume":"15","author":"Zhang","year":"2001","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1038\/ncprheum0797","article-title":"Drug insight: Tumor necrosis factor-converting enzyme as a pharmaceutical target for rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"4","author":"Moss","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nat. Clin. Pract. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_126","first-page":"1014","article-title":"Drug evaluation: Apratastat, a novel TACE\/MMP inhibitor for rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"7","author":"Thabet","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Investig. Drugs"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1175","DOI":"10.5114\/aoms.2014.47827","article-title":"Tumor necrosis factor inhibitors\u2014State of knowledge","volume":"10","author":"Lis","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arch. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(94)90628-9","article-title":"Randomized double-blind comparison of chimeric monoclonal antibody to tumour necrosis factor \u03b1 (cA2) versus placebo in rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"344","author":"Elliot","year":"1994","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e179180","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/179180","article-title":"New onset of dermatomyositis\/polymyositis during anti-TNF-\u03b1 therapies: A systematic literature review","volume":"2014","author":"Brunasso","year":"2014","journal-title":"Sci. World J."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cyto.2014.10.012","article-title":"Interferons as components of the complex web of reactions sustaining inflammation in idiopathic inflammatory myopathies","volume":"74","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R57","DOI":"10.1186\/ar4492","article-title":"Dose-escalation of human anti-interferon-\u03b1 receptor monoclonal antibody MEDI-546 in subjects with systemic sclerosis: A phase 1, multicenter, open label study","volume":"16","author":"Goldberg","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2005.079392","article-title":"Fontolizumab, a humanized anti-interferon \u03b3 antibody, demonstrates safety and clinical activity in patients with moderate to severe Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"55","author":"Hommes","year":"2006","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Paepe, B., Creus, K.K., and De Bleecker, J.L. (2012). The tumor necrosis factor superfamily of cytokines in the inflammatory myopathies: Potential targets for therapy. Clin. Dev. Immunol.","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/369432"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1016\/S1074-7613(04)00079-2","article-title":"Reduced competitiveness of autoantigen-engaged B cells due to increased dependence on BAFF","volume":"20","author":"Lesley","year":"2004","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2010-07-294249","article-title":"Characterization of a rare IL-10-competent B-cell subset in humans that parallels mouse regulatory B10 cells","volume":"117","author":"Iwata","year":"2001","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5537","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.174.9.5537","article-title":"BAFF augments certain Th1-associated inflammatory responses","volume":"174","author":"Sutherland","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e23629","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0023629","article-title":"BAFF promotes Th17 cells and aggravates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis","volume":"6","author":"Zhou","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3655","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.180.6.3655","article-title":"Cutting edge: The dependence of plasma cells and independence of memory B cells on BAFF and APRIL","volume":"180","author":"Benson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_139","first-page":"2453","article-title":"Belimumab Study Group. Biologic activity and safety of belimumab, a neutralizing anti-B-lympjhocyte stimulator (BLyS) monoclonal antibody: A phase I trial in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus","volume":"58","author":"Furie","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1038\/35010115","article-title":"TACI and BCMA are receptors for a TNF homologue implicated in B-cell autoimmune disease","volume":"404","author":"Gross","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1461","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2012-202775","article-title":"Tabalumab, an anti-BAFF monoclonal antibody, in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis with an inadequate response to TNF inhibitors","volume":"72","author":"Genovese","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1002\/art.1780400514","article-title":"Cytokine production in muscle tissue of patients with idiopathic inflammatory myopathies","volume":"40","author":"Lundberg","year":"1997","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2990.1997.tb01195.x","article-title":"Interleukin-1 expression in inflammatory myopathies: Evidence of marked immunoreactivity in sarcoid granulomas and muscle fibres showing ischaemic and regenerative changes","volume":"23","author":"Authier","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1007","DOI":"10.1002\/art.1780330713","article-title":"Interleukin-1\u03b1, interleukin-2, and soluble interleukin-2 receptors in polymyositis","volume":"33","author":"Wolf","year":"1990","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.39.128","article-title":"Abnromal IL-1 receptor antagonist production in patients with polymyositis and dermatomyositis","volume":"39","author":"Son","year":"2000","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_146","first-page":"323","article-title":"The balance between IL-1 and IL-1Ra in disease","volume":"13","author":"Arend","year":"2002","journal-title":"Cytokine"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbspin.2013.03.004","article-title":"Myositis in a patient with familial Mediterranean fever and spondyloarthritis successfully treated with anakinra","volume":"80","author":"Estublier","year":"2013","journal-title":"Jt. Bone Spine"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1097\/00002371-200207000-00009","article-title":"Induction of myasthenia gravis, myositis, and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus by high-dose interleukin-2 in a patient with renal cell cancer","volume":"25","author":"Fraenkel","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Immunother."},{"key":"ref_149","first-page":"94","article-title":"Spotlight on anti-CD25: Daclizumab in MS","volume":"15","author":"Schippling","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. MS J."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1568","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.2005.089854","article-title":"Daclizumab, a humanized monoclonal antibody to the interleukin 2 receptor (CD25), for the treatment of moderately to severely active ulcerative colitis: A randomized, double blind, placebo controlled, and dose ranging trial","volume":"55","author":"Sandborn","year":"2006","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1145","DOI":"10.1515\/hsz-2013-0166","article-title":"Interleukin-6 and interleukin-11: Same but different","volume":"394","author":"Garbers","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1042\/bj3000281","article-title":"Soluble receptors for cytokines and growth factors: Generation and biological function","volume":"300","author":"Heinrich","year":"1994","journal-title":"Biochem. J."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2007-07-102137","article-title":"Transgenic blockade of interleukin 6 transsignaling abrogates inflammation","volume":"111","author":"Rabe","year":"2008","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/S1074-7613(00)80334-9","article-title":"Role of IL-6 and its soluble receptor in induction of chemokines and leukocyte recruitment","volume":"6","author":"Romano","year":"1997","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3375","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI57158","article-title":"Therapeutic strategies for the clinical blockade of IL-6\/gp130 signaling","volume":"121","author":"Jones","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1432-1327.2001.01867.x","article-title":"Soluble pg130 is the natural inhibitor of soluble interleukin-6 receptor transsignaling responses","volume":"268","author":"Jostock","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur. J. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1907","DOI":"10.1093\/rheumatology\/keu234","article-title":"A case of overlap syndrome successfully treated with tocilizumab: A hopeful treatment strategy for refractory dermatomyositis?","volume":"53","author":"Kondo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbspin.2010.08.004","article-title":"Tocilizumab in a patient with ankylosing spondylitis and Crohn\u2019s disease refractory to TNF antagonists","volume":"77","author":"Brulhart","year":"2010","journal-title":"Jt. Bone Spine"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Snir, A., Kessel, A., Haj, T., Rosner, I., Rozenbaum, M., Slobodin, G., and Toubi, E. (2011). Anti-IL-6 receptor antobody (tocilizumab): A B cell targeting therapy. Ann. Rheum. Dis., 70.","DOI":"10.1136\/ard.2010.149005.1"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Romanazzo, S., Forte, G., Morishima, K., and Taniguchi, A. (2014). IL-12 involvement in myogenic differentiation of C2C12 in vitro. Biomater. Sci.","DOI":"10.1039\/C4BM00315B"},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1665","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(08)60725-4","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of ustekinumab, a human interleukin-12\/23 monoclonal antibody, in patients with psoriasis: 76-week results from a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial (PHOENIX 1)","volume":"371","author":"Leonardi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1001\/archdermatol.2007.63","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of ABT-874, a fully human interleukin 12\/23 monoclonal antibody, in the treatment of moderate to severe chronic plaque psoriasis: Results of a randomized, placebo-controlled, phase 2 trial","volume":"144","author":"Kimball","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"990","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2013-204655","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of the anti-IL-12\/23 p40 monoclonal antibody, ustekinumab, in patients with active psoriatic arthritis despite conventional non-biological and biological anti-tumour necrosis factor therapy: 6-month and 1-year results of the phase 3, multicentre, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized PSUMMIT 2 trial","volume":"73","author":"Ritchlin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1130","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2008.07.014","article-title":"A randomized trial of Ustekinumab, a human interleukin-12\/23 monoclonal antibody, in patients with moderate-to-severe Crohn\u2019s disease","volume":"135","author":"Sandborn","year":"2008","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"796","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(08)70173-X","article-title":"Repeated subcutaneous injections of IL12\/23 p40 neutralizing antibody, ustekinumab, in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: A phase II, double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized, dose-ranging study","volume":"7","author":"Segal","year":"2008","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1177\/1759720X13485328","article-title":"Targeting interleukin-17 in patients with active rheumatoid arthritis: Rationale and clinical potential","volume":"5","author":"Kellner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Musculoskel. Dis."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1190","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1109997","article-title":"Anti-interleukin-17 monoclonal antibody ixekizumab in chronic plaque psoriasis","volume":"366","author":"Leonardi","year":"2012","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1109017","article-title":"Brodalumab, an anti-interleukin-17-receptor antibody for psoriasis","volume":"366","author":"Papp","year":"2012","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1111\/bjd.12070","article-title":"Secukinumab induction and maintanace therapy in moderate-to-severe plaque psoriasis: A randominzes, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase II regimen-finding study","volume":"168","author":"Rich","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3175","DOI":"10.1002\/art.21303","article-title":"Association between lack of angiogenic response in muscle tissue and high expression of angiostatic ELR-negative CXC chemokines in patients with juvenile dermatomyositis","volume":"52","author":"Fall","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e77745","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0077745","article-title":"The vitamin D receptor agonist BXL-01-0029 as a potential new pharmacological tool for the treatment of inflammatory myoathies","volume":"8","author":"Sottili","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Crescioli, C. (2014). Vitamin D receptor agonists: Suitable candidates as novel therapeutic options in autoimmune inflammatory myopathy. BioMed. Res. Int., 2014.","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/949730"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1136\/gutjnl-2012-303424","article-title":"Anti-IP-10 antibody (BMS-936557) for ulcerative colitis: A phase II randomized study","volume":"63","author":"Mayer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1779","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.58.12.1779","article-title":"Differential expression of chemokines in inflammatory myopathies","volume":"58","author":"Vanwalleghem","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1931","DOI":"10.1002\/art.23591","article-title":"Modulation of CCR2 in rheumatoid arthritis: A double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial","volume":"58","author":"Vergunst","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1042\/cs0940557","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory actions of glucocorticoids: Molecular mechanisms","volume":"94","author":"Barnes","year":"1998","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1440-1711.2001.01025.x","article-title":"Cross-talk between pro-inflammatory transcription factors and glucocorticoids","volume":"79","author":"Adcock","year":"2001","journal-title":"Immunol. Cell. Biol."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2036.1996.22164025.x","article-title":"Cytokine modulation by glucocorticoids: Mechanisms and actions in cellular studies","volume":"10","author":"Brattsand","year":"1996","journal-title":"Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4091","DOI":"10.1002\/art.37692","article-title":"Provision of an explanation for the inefficacy of immunotherapy in sporadic inclusion body myositis: Quantitative assessment of inflammation and beta-amyloid in the muscle","volume":"64","author":"Zschuntzsch","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/16\/8\/18683\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T20:50:29Z","timestamp":1760215829000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/16\/8\/18683"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,8,11]]},"references-count":179,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms160818683"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms160818683","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,8,11]]}}}