{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,17]],"date-time":"2026-09-17T16:51:48Z","timestamp":1789663908188,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":132,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,9]],"date-time":"2016-11-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1478649600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC) and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) represent the major clinical entities of chronic cholestatic liver diseases. Both disorders are characterized by portal inflammation and slowly progress to obliterative fibrosis and eventually liver cirrhosis. Although immune-pathogenic mechanisms have been implicated in the pathogenesis of PBC and PSC, neither disorder is considered to be a classical autoimmune disease, as PSC and PBC patients do not respond to immune-suppressants. Furthermore, the decreased bile flow resulting from the immune-mediated tissue assault and the subsequent accumulation of toxic bile products in PBC and PSC not only perpetuates biliary epithelial damage, but also alters the composition of the intestinal and biliary microbiota and its mutual interactions with the host. Consistent with the close association of PSC and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), the polyclonal hyper IgM response in PBC and (auto-)antibodies which cross-react to microbial antigens in both diseases, an expansion of individual microbes leads to shifts in the composition of the intestinal or biliary microbiota and a subsequent altered integrity of epithelial layers, promoting microbial translocation. These changes have been implicated in the pathogenesis of both devastating disorders. Thus, we will discuss here these recent findings in the context of novel and alternative therapeutic options.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms17111864","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,9]],"date-time":"2016-11-09T10:09:39Z","timestamp":1478686179000},"page":"1864","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":41,"title":["Impact of Microbes on the Pathogenesis of Primary Biliary Cirrhosis (PBC) and Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis (PSC)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"given":"Jochen","family":"Mattner","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Mikrobiologisches Institut\u2014Klinische Mikrobiologie, Immunologie und Hygiene, Universit\u00e4tsklinikum Erlangen and Friedrich-Alexander Universit\u00e4t (FAU) Erlangen-N\u00fcrnberg, Wasserturmstr. 3\/5, D-91054 Erlangen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.biochem.72.121801.161712","article-title":"The enzymes, regulation, and genetics of bile acid synthesis","volume":"72","author":"Russell","year":"2003","journal-title":"Annu. 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