{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T19:40:26Z","timestamp":1790797226572,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,4]],"date-time":"2018-01-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1515024000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Although the spectrum of fungal pathology has been studied extensively in immunosuppressed patients, little is known about the epidemiology, risk factors, and management of fungal infections in chronic pulmonary diseases like bronchiectasis. In bronchiectasis patients, deteriorated mucociliary clearance\u2014generally due to prior colonization by bacterial pathogens\u2014and thick mucosity propitiate, the persistence of fungal spores in the respiratory tract. The most prevalent fungi in these patients are Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus; these are almost always isolated with bacterial pathogens like Haemophillus influenzae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, making very difficult to define their clinical significance. Analysis of the mycobiome enables us to detect a greater diversity of microorganisms than with conventional cultures. The results have shown a reduced fungal diversity in most chronic respiratory diseases, and that this finding correlates with poorer lung function. Increased knowledge of both the mycobiome and the complex interactions between the fungal, viral, and bacterial microbiota, including mycobacteria, will further our understanding of the mycobiome\u2019s relationship with the pathogeny of bronchiectasis and the development of innovative therapies to combat it.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19010142","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,4]],"date-time":"2018-01-04T11:52:47Z","timestamp":1515066767000},"page":"142","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":55,"title":["Fungi in Bronchiectasis: A Concise Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Luis","family":"M\u00e1iz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Servicio de Neumolog\u00eda, Unidad de Bronquiectasias y Fibrosis Qu\u00edstica, Hospital Universitario Ram\u00f3n y Cajal, 28034 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4822-1892","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rosa","family":"Nieto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Servicio de Neumolog\u00eda, Unidad de Bronquiectasias y Fibrosis Qu\u00edstica, Hospital Universitario Ram\u00f3n y Cajal, 28034 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1675-3173","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rafael","family":"Cant\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Servicio de Microbiolog\u00eda, Hospital Universitario Ram\u00f3n y Cajal and Instituto Ram\u00f3n y Cajal de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Elia","family":"G\u00f3mez G. de la Pedrosa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Servicio de Microbiolog\u00eda, Hospital Universitario Ram\u00f3n y Cajal and Instituto Ram\u00f3n y Cajal de Investigaci\u00f3n Sanitaria (IRYCIS), 28034 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7321-1891","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Miguel","family":"Martinez-Garc\u00eda","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Servicio de Neumolog\u00eda, Hospital Universitario y Polit\u00e9cnico la Fe, 46016 Valencia, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mart\u00ednez-Garc\u00eda, M.A., M\u00e1iz, L., Olveira, C., Gir\u00f3n, R.M., de la Rosa, D., Blanco, M., Cant\u00f3n, R., Vendrell, M., Polverino, E., and de Gracia, J. (2017). Normativa sobre la valoraci\u00f3n y el diagn\u00f3stico de las bronquiectasias en el adulto. Arch. Bronconeumol.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arbres.2017.07.015"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1700629","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.00629-2017","article-title":"European Respiratory Society guidelines for the management of adult bronchiectasis","volume":"50","author":"Polverino","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"723129","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/723129","article-title":"Aspergillus-associated airway disease, inflammation, and the innate immune response","volume":"2013","author":"Chotirmall","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biomed. Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"16","article-title":"Update on the diagnosis of invasive fungal infection","volume":"30","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Esp. Quimioter."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2014-206291","article-title":"The clinical spectrum of pulmonary aspergillosis","volume":"70","author":"Kosmidis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0035-1546750","article-title":"Fungi in cystic fibrosis and non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis","volume":"36","author":"Moss","year":"2015","journal-title":"Semin. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"6","article-title":"Inflammation: A two-edged sword\u2014The model of bronchiectasis","volume":"147","author":"Cole","year":"1986","journal-title":"Eur. J. Respir. Dis. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2014.07.021","article-title":"Non cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis: A longitudinal retrospective observational cohort study of Pseudomonas persistence and resistance","volume":"109","author":"McDonnell","year":"2015","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1045","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.2005.046631","article-title":"Non-tuberculous mycobacteria in patients with bronchiectasis","volume":"60","author":"Wickremasinghe","year":"2005","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"M\u00e1iz, L., Gir\u00f3n, R., Olveira, C., Vendrell, M., Nieto, R., and Mart\u00ednez-Garc\u00eda, M.A. (2016). Prevalence and factors associated with nontuberculous mycobacteria in non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis: A multicenter observational study. BMC Infect. Dis., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-016-1774-x"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1159\/000381289","article-title":"Prevalence and factors associated with isolation of Aspergillus and Candida from sputum in patients with non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis","volume":"89","author":"Olveira","year":"2015","journal-title":"Respiration"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2012-203105","article-title":"Clinical measures of disease in adult non-CF bronchiectasis correlate with airway microbiota composition","volume":"68","author":"Rogers","year":"2013","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcf.2013.02.003","article-title":"What is the clinical significance of filamentous fungi positive sputum cultures in patients with cystic fibrosis?","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Cyst. Fibros."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1633","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2007.03.009","article-title":"Microbiologic follow-up study in adult bronchiectasis","volume":"101","author":"King","year":"2007","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","first-page":"146","article-title":"Aspergillus fumigatus and Candida albicans in cystic fibrosis: Clinical significance and specific immune response involving serum immunoglobulins G, A, and M","volume":"44","author":"Cuevas","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch. Bronconeumol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1007\/s11046-014-9804-y","article-title":"Fungal culture and sensitisation in asthma, cystic fibrosis and chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder: What does it tell us?","volume":"178","author":"Pashley","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.09-1103","article-title":"The effect of chronic infection with Aspergillus fumigatus on lung function and hospitalization in patients with cystic fibrosis","volume":"137","author":"Amin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcf.2009.11.010","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors for recovery of filamentous fungi in individuals with cystic fibrosis","volume":"9","author":"Sudfeld","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Cyst. Fibros."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1186","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.09-2996","article-title":"Sputum Candida albicans presages FEV1 decline and hospital-treated exacerbations in cystic fibrosis","volume":"138","author":"Chotirmall","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1190","DOI":"10.1086\/314727","article-title":"Effect of chronic intermittent administration of inhaled tobramycin on respiratory microbial flora in patients with cystic fibrosis","volume":"179","author":"Burns","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1136\/thorax.57.1.15","article-title":"Bacterial colonisation in patients with bronchiectasis: Microbiological pattern and risk factors","volume":"57","author":"Angrill","year":"2002","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"955","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.108.4.955","article-title":"Clinical, pathophysiologic, and microbiologic characterization of bronchiectasis in an aging cohort","volume":"108","author":"Nicotra","year":"1995","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2069","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rmed.2006.03.003","article-title":"Exophiala dermatitidis infection in non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis","volume":"100","author":"Mukaino","year":"2006","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-011-1229-7","article-title":"A prospective survey of Aspergillus spp. in respiratory tract samples: Prevalence, clinical impact and antifungal susceptibility","volume":"30","author":"Mortensen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1407","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.53.2230","article-title":"Clinical characteristics of biopsy-proven allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis: Variety in causative fungi and laboratory findings","volume":"53","author":"Ishiguro","year":"2014","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1099-0496(199601)21:1<6::AID-PPUL1>3.0.CO;2-R","article-title":"Clinical significance of the recovery of Aspergillus species from the respiratory secretions of cystic fibrosis patients","volume":"21","author":"Milla","year":"1996","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"764","DOI":"10.1002\/ppul.21240","article-title":"Risk factors for Aspergillus colonization and allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis in children with cystic fibrosis","volume":"45","author":"Jubin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Pediatr. Pulmonol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"835","DOI":"10.1016\/S0954-6111(99)90270-6","article-title":"Prophylactic antibiotic therapy is associated with an increased prevalence of Aspergillus colonization in adult cystic fibrosis patients","volume":"93","author":"Bargon","year":"1999","journal-title":"Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1513","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.150.6.7952609","article-title":"Development of immune responses to Aspergillus at an early age in children with cystic fibrosis","volume":"150","author":"Fink","year":"1994","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1351","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.12-1363","article-title":"IgE-mediated immune responses and airway detection of Aspergillus and Candida in adult cystic fibrosis","volume":"143","author":"Baxter","year":"2013","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166.e1","DOI":"10.3109\/13693780903127506","article-title":"Comparison of techniques to examine the diversity of fungi in adult patients with cystic fibrosis","volume":"48","author":"Nagano","year":"2010","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"435","DOI":"10.1016\/j.diii.2015.01.005","article-title":"Pulmonary aspergillosis","volume":"96","author":"Chabi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Diagn. Interv. Imaging"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"35","article-title":"Question 11: How should Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis [ABPA] be managed in Cystic Fibrosis?","volume":"24","author":"Ohn","year":"2017","journal-title":"Paediatr. Respir. Rev."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, L., He, H., Jin, J., and Zhan, Q. (2017). Is Bulpa criteria suitable for the diagnosis of probable invasive pulmonary Aspergillosis in critically ill patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease? A comparative study with EORTC\/ MSG and ICU criteria. BMC Infect. Dis., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-017-2307-y"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaci.2011.12.970","article-title":"Fungi and allergic lower respiratory tract diseases","volume":"129","author":"Knutsen","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Allergy Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcf.2014.10.005","article-title":"Molecular epidemiology of Aspergillus collected from cystic fibrosis patients","volume":"14","author":"Sabino","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Cyst. Fibros."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delhaes, L., Monchy, S., Fr\u00e9alle, E., Hubans, C., Salleron, J., Leroy, S., Prevotat, A., Wallet, F., Wallaert, B., and Dei-Cas, E. (2012). The airway microbiota in cystic fibrosis: A complex fungal and bacterial community--implications for therapeutic management. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0036313"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chotirmall, S.H., and Martin-Gomez, M.T. (2017). Aspergillus species in bronchiectasis: Challenges in the cystic fibrosis and non-cystic fibrosis airways. Mycopathologia.","DOI":"10.1007\/s11046-017-0143-7"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"1602","article-title":"A comprehensive analysis of the impact of Pseudomonas aeruginosa colonization on prognosis in adult bronchiectasis","volume":"12","author":"Finch","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1186\/2045-7022-4-14","article-title":"Fungal allergy in asthma-state of the art and research needs","volume":"4","author":"Denning","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Transl. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"496","DOI":"10.1513\/AnnalsATS.201310-335OC","article-title":"A novel microbiota stratification system predicts future exacerbations in bronchiectasis","volume":"11","author":"Rogers","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Am. Thorac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1811","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2958.1991.tb01930.x","article-title":"Secretion of a potential virulence factor, a fungal ribonucleotoxin, during human aspergillosis infections","volume":"5","author":"Lamy","year":"1991","journal-title":"Mol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"247","article-title":"Characterization of a second major antigen Ag 13 (antigen C) of Aspergillus fumigatus and investigation of its immunological reactivity","volume":"70","author":"Harvey","year":"1987","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.60.3.728-734.1992","article-title":"Purification and properties of the elastase from Aspergillus fumigatus","volume":"60","author":"Frosco","year":"1992","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1007\/s11046-014-9768-y","article-title":"Immunoevasive Aspergillus virulence factors","volume":"178","author":"Chotirmall","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mycopathologia"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oosthuizen, J.L., Gomez, P., Ruan, J., Hackett, T.L., Moore, M.M., Knight, D.A., and Tebbutt, S.J. (2011). Dual organism transcriptomics of airway epithelial cells interacting with conidia of Aspergillus fumigatus. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0020527"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbagen.2011.04.019","article-title":"Proteinases as molecular adjuvants in allergic airway disease","volume":"1810","author":"Porter","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S158","DOI":"10.3109\/13693786.2010.509743","article-title":"Respiratory tract allergic disease and atopy: Experimental evidence for a fungal infectious etiology","volume":"49","author":"Porter","year":"2011","journal-title":"Med. Mycol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"982","DOI":"10.1111\/cea.12426","article-title":"Aspergillus fumigatus proteases, Asp f 5 and Asp f 13, are essential for airway inflammation and remodelling in a murine inhalation model","volume":"45","author":"Amvar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/152.1.33","article-title":"Mechanisms of resistance of Aspergillus fumigatus conidia to killing by neutrophils in vitro","volume":"152","author":"Levitz","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/S0171-2985(84)80143-6","article-title":"Interaction of Aspergillus fumigatus spores and pulmonary alveolar macrophages of rabbits","volume":"166","author":"Kurup","year":"1984","journal-title":"Immunobiology"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.1093\/infdis\/154.3.483","article-title":"In vitro killing of spores and hyphae of Aspergillus fumigatus and Rhizopus oryzae by rabbit neutrophil cationic peptides and bronchoalveolar macrophages","volume":"154","author":"Levitz","year":"1986","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3684","article-title":"The mycobiota: Interactions between commensal fungi and the host immune system","volume":"14","author":"Underhill","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1111\/cea.12354","article-title":"Pattern recognition pathways leading to a Th2 cytokine bias in allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis patients","volume":"45","author":"Becker","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.1111\/cea.12141","article-title":"ABPA complicating asthma ISHAM working group. Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis: Review of literature and proposal of new diagnostic and classification criteria","volume":"43","author":"Agarwal","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"352","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.06.00139005","article-title":"Nontuberculous mycobacterial disease and Aspergillus-related lung disease in bronchiectasis","volume":"28","author":"Kunst","year":"2006","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1403.061405","article-title":"Multicenter cross-sectional study of nontuberculous mycobacterial infections among cystic fibrosis patients, Israel","volume":"14","author":"Levy","year":"2008","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.05.00058604","article-title":"Nontuberculous mycobacteria in cystic fibrosis associated with allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis and steroid therapy","volume":"25","author":"Mussaffi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1148\/radiology.187.3.8497629","article-title":"Atypical mycobacterial infection in the lung: CT appearance","volume":"187","author":"Moore","year":"1993","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.3109\/1040841X.2012.754401","article-title":"Allergic bronchopulmonary mycosis due to fungi other than Aspergillus: A global overview","volume":"40","author":"Chowdhary","year":"2014","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"388","article-title":"Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis caused by Aspergillus terreus","volume":"127","author":"Vincken","year":"1983","journal-title":"Am. Rev. Respir. Dis."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2222.1985.tb02311.x","article-title":"Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis and sensitization to Aspergillus fumigatus in chronic bronchiectasis in adults","volume":"15","author":"Bahous","year":"1985","journal-title":"Clin. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"74","article-title":"Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis (ABPA) caused by Aspergillus terreus: Specific lymphocyte sensitization and antigen-directed serum opsonic activity","volume":"46","author":"Laham","year":"1981","journal-title":"Ann. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.2169\/internalmedicine.31.140","article-title":"Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis caused by Aspergillus terreus presenting lobar collapse","volume":"31","author":"Nakahara","year":"1992","journal-title":"Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1398-9995.2005.00887.x","article-title":"Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis","volume":"60","author":"Tonnel","year":"2005","journal-title":"Allergy"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arbres.2016.12.003","article-title":"Etiology of bronchiectasis in a cohort of 2047 patients. An analysis of the Spanish Historical Bronchiectasis Registry","volume":"53","author":"Olveira","year":"2017","journal-title":"Arch. Bronconeumol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"292","DOI":"10.1136\/thoraxjnl-2013-203739","article-title":"National BTS bronchiectasis audit 2012: Is the quality standard being adhered to in adult secondary care?","volume":"69","author":"Hill","year":"2014","journal-title":"Thorax"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1211","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200603-423OC","article-title":"Effect of allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis on lung function in children with cystic fibrosis","volume":"174","author":"Kraemer","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"333","article-title":"Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis in patients with and without evidence of bronchiectasis","volume":"70","author":"Greenberger","year":"1993","journal-title":"Ann. Allergy"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcf.2016.03.002","article-title":"Epidemiology of nontuberculous mycobacteria (NTM) amongst individuals with cystic fibrosis (CF)","volume":"15","author":"Viviani","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Cyst. Fibros."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dickson, R.P., and Huffnagle, G.B. (2015). The Lung Microbiome: New principles for respiratory bacteriology in health and disease. PLoS Pathog., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1004923"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2015.00089","article-title":"The lung mycobiome: An emerging field of the human respiratory microbiome","volume":"6","author":"Nguyen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1186\/2049-2618-2-40","article-title":"Characterization and quantification of the fungal microbiome in serial samples from individuals with cystic fibrosis","volume":"2","author":"Willger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kramer, R., Sauer-Heilborn, A., Welte, T., Jauregui, R., Brettar, I., Guzman, C.A., and H\u00f6fle, M.G. (2015). High individuality of respiratory bacterial communities in a large cohort of adult cystic fibrosis patients under continuous antibiotic treatment. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0117436"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00959-17","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00959-17","article-title":"Individual patterns of complexity in cystic fibrosis lung microbiota, including predator bacteria, over a 1-Year Period","volume":"8","author":"Vida","year":"2017","journal-title":"MBio"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcf.2014.02.007","article-title":"Improvement of digestive health and reduction in proteobacterial populations in the gut microbiota of cystic fibrosis patients using a Lactobacillus reuteri probiotic preparation: A double blind prospective study","volume":"13","author":"Garriga","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Cyst. Fibros."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201210-1937OC","article-title":"Lung microbiota and bacterial abundance in patients with bronchiectasis when clinically stable and during exacerbation","volume":"187","author":"Tunney","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1080\/21505594.2016.1235671","article-title":"The lung mycobiome in the next-generation sequencing era","volume":"8","author":"Tipton","year":"2017","journal-title":"Virulence"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1183\/13993003.01888-2015","article-title":"Research priorities in bronchiectasis: A consensus statement from the EMBARC Clinical Research Collaboration","volume":"48","author":"Aliberti","year":"2016","journal-title":"Eur. Respir. J."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/19\/1\/142\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T14:50:04Z","timestamp":1760194204000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/19\/1\/142"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,4]]},"references-count":79,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms19010142"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms19010142","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,1,4]]}}}