{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T01:50:21Z","timestamp":1784685021757,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,9]],"date-time":"2018-05-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1525824000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Science and Technology","award":["MOST-103-2314-B-016-015"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST-103-2314-B-016-015"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science and Technology","award":["MOST-105-2314-B-016-045"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST-105-2314-B-016-045"]}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science and Technology","award":["MOST-106-2314-B-016 -022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST-106-2314-B-016 -022"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a vision-threatening age-associated disease. The retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells phagocytose and digest photoreceptor outer segment (POS). Incomplete digestion of POS leads to lipofuscin accumulation, which contributes to the pathology of the AMD. Autophagy could help reduce the amount of lipofuscin accumulation. In the present study, we evaluated the effects of glucosamine (GlcN), a natural supplement, on the induction of autophagy and POS-derived lipofuscin-like autofluorescence (LLAF) in ARPE-19 cells in vitro, and investigated the potential molecular pathway involved. Our results revealed that GlcN had no effect on phagocytosis of POS at the lower doses. GlcN treatment induced autophagy in cells. GlcN decreased the LLAF in native POS-treated cells, whereas malondialdehyde or 4-hydroxynonenal-modified POS attenuated this effect. 3-Methyladenine inhibited GlcN-induced autophagy and attenuated the effect of GlcN on the decrease of the native POS-derived LLAF. Furthermore, GlcN induced the phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and inhibited the phosphorylation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), whereas Compound C inhibited these effects of GlcN. Altogether, these results suggest that GlcN decreased the native POS-derived LLAF through induction of autophagy, at least in part, by the AMPK\u2013mTOR pathway. This mechanism has potential for the preventive treatment of lipofuscin-related retinal degeneration such as AMD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19051416","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,10]],"date-time":"2018-05-10T03:48:27Z","timestamp":1525924107000},"page":"1416","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["Glucosamine-Induced Autophagy through AMPK\u2013mTOR Pathway Attenuates Lipofuscin-Like Autofluorescence in Human Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells In Vitro"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4058-7753","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ching-Long","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, 325 Cheng-Kung Road, Section 2, Taipei 114, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yi-Hao","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, 325 Cheng-Kung Road, Section 2, Taipei 114, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chang-Min","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, 325 Cheng-Kung Road, Section 2, Taipei 114, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ming-Cheng","family":"Tai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, 325 Cheng-Kung Road, Section 2, Taipei 114, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Da-Wen","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, 325 Cheng-Kung Road, Section 2, Taipei 114, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jiann-Torng","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, 325 Cheng-Kung Road, Section 2, Taipei 114, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,5,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2606","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMra0801537","article-title":"Age-related macular degeneration","volume":"358","author":"Jager","year":"2008","journal-title":"N. 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