{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,6]],"date-time":"2026-10-06T20:16:03Z","timestamp":1791317763139,"version":"4.3.1"},"reference-count":97,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,6]],"date-time":"2018-07-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1530835200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Oral infections occur frequently in humans and often lead to chronic inflammations affecting the teeth (i.e., caries), the gingival tissues surrounding the teeth (i.e., gingivitis and endodontic lesions), and the tooth-supporting structures (i.e., periodontitis). At least four basic pathogenic mechanisms have been proposed that involve oral inflammations in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: (1) low level bacteremia by which oral bacteria enter the blood stream and invade the arterial wall; (2) systemic inflammation induced by inflammatory mediators released from the sites of the oral inflammation into the blood stream; (3) autoimmunity to host proteins caused by the host immune response to specific components of oral pathogens; (4) pro-atherogenic effects resulting from specific bacterial toxins that are produced by oral pathogenic bacteria. In this narrative review, we summarize published experimental evidence related to these four mechanisms and discuss their impact on the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19071978","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,6]],"date-time":"2018-07-06T10:55:44Z","timestamp":1530874544000},"page":"1978","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":68,"title":["Roles of Oral Infections in the Pathomechanism of Atherosclerosis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"given":"Ghazal","family":"Aarabi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, Center for Dental and Oral Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistrasse 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guido","family":"Heydecke","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, Center for Dental and Oral Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistrasse 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Udo","family":"Seedorf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Prosthetic Dentistry, Center for Dental and Oral Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Martinistrasse 52, 20246 Hamburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1038\/362801a0","article-title":"The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis: A perspective for the 1990s","volume":"362","author":"Ross","year":"1993","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199901143400207","article-title":"Atherosclerosis\u2014An inflammatory disease","volume":"340","author":"Ross","year":"1999","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2095","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)61728-0","article-title":"Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010","volume":"380","author":"Lozano","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Wilkins, E., Wilson, L., Wickramasinghe, K., Bhatnagar, P., Leal, J., Luengo-Fernandez, R., Burns, R., Rayner, M., and Townsend, N. (2017). European Cardiovascular Disease Statistics 2017, European Heart Network."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"D\u00e9gano, I.R., Salomaa, V., Veronesi, G., Ferri\u00e9res, J., Kirchberger, I., Laks, T., Havulinna, A.S., Ruidavets, J.B., Ferrario, M.M., and Meisinger, C. (2015). Twenty-five-year trends in myocardial infarction attack and mortality rates, and case-fatality, in six European populations. Heart.","DOI":"10.1136\/heartjnl-2014-307310"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCULATIONAHA.107.699579","article-title":"General cardiovascular risk profile for use in primary care: The Framingham Heart Study","volume":"117","author":"Vasan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2362.2007.01888.x","article-title":"Assessing risk of myocardial infarction and stroke: New data from the Prospective Cardiovascular M\u00fcnster (PROCAM) study","volume":"37","author":"Assmann","year":"2007","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S11","DOI":"10.1038\/ijo.2008.29","article-title":"Cardiovascular risk assessment in the metabolic syndrome: Results from the Prospective Cardiovascular Munster (PROCAM) Study","volume":"32","author":"Assmann","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Obes. (Lond.)"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1016\/j.atherosclerosis.2015.04.819","article-title":"Interaction between periodontal disease and atherosclerotic vascular disease\u2014Fact or fiction?","volume":"241","author":"Aarabi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Atherosclerosis"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1046\/j.0906-6713.2002.003421.x","article-title":"Periodontal diagnoses and classification of periodontal diseases","volume":"34","author":"Armitage","year":"2004","journal-title":"Periodontol"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.1965.36.3.177","article-title":"Experimental gingivitis in man","volume":"36","author":"Loe","year":"1965","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"41","article-title":"Gingivitis: A prelude to periodontitis?","volume":"6","author":"Robinson","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Clin. Dent."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0579.2010.00620.x","article-title":"Periodontal health in Europe: Future trends based on treatment needs and the provision of periodontal services--position paper 1","volume":"14","author":"Holtfreter","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Dent. Educ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0757.2011.00425.x","article-title":"The global burden of periodontal disease: Towards integration with chronic disease prevention and control","volume":"60","author":"Petersen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Periodontol"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3599","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00431-08","article-title":"Root canal microbiota of teeth with chronic apical periodontitis","volume":"46","author":"Siqueira","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-9657.1990.tb00430.x","article-title":"Prevalence of previous endodontic treatment, technical standard and occurrence of periapical lesions in a randomly selected adult, general population","volume":"6","author":"Salonen","year":"1990","journal-title":"Endod. Dent. Traumatol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-9657.1991.tb00174.x","article-title":"Prevalence of apical periodontitis and results of endodontic treatment in middle-aged adults in Norway","volume":"7","author":"Eriksen","year":"1991","journal-title":"Endod. Dent. Traumatol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2591.2003.00640.x","article-title":"Periapical health and treatment quality assessment of root-filled teeth in two Canadian populations","volume":"36","author":"Dugas","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. Endod. J."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reyes, L., Herrera, D., Kozarov, E., Rold\u00e1, S., and Progulske-Fox, A. (2013). Periodontal bacterial invasion and infection: Contribution to atherosclerotic pathology. J. Periodontol., 84.","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.2013.1340012"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"879","DOI":"10.1177\/0022034510375281","article-title":"\u201cGum bug, leave my heart alone\u201d\u2014Epidemiologic and mechanistic evidence linking periodontal infections and atherosclerosis","volume":"89","author":"Kebschull","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1007\/s00795-007-0381-8","article-title":"Role of beta-defensins in oral epithelial health and disease","volume":"40","author":"Abiko","year":"2007","journal-title":"Med. Mol. Morphol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3073","DOI":"10.2174\/138161207782110435","article-title":"Expression of defensins in gingiva and their role in periodontal health and disease","volume":"13","author":"Chung","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1111\/1348-0421.12022","article-title":"Interleukin-8 and CXCL10 expression in oral keratinocytes and fibroblasts via Toll-like receptors","volume":"57","author":"Fukui","year":"2013","journal-title":"Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1902\/annals.2002.7.1.62","article-title":"Immune processes in periodontal disease: A review","volume":"7","author":"Kinane","year":"2002","journal-title":"Ann. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-051X.2006.00924.x","article-title":"Incidence of bacteremia after chewing, tooth brushing and scaling in individuals with periodontal inflammation","volume":"33","author":"Forner","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-051X.2011.01784.x","article-title":"Periodontal health status and bacteraemia from daily oral activities: Systematic review\/meta-analysis","volume":"39","author":"Diz","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1038\/s41522-016-0009-7","article-title":"Linkages between oral commensal bacteria and atherosclerotic plaques in coronary artery disease patients","volume":"2","author":"Singhal","year":"2016","journal-title":"NPJ Biofilms Microbiomes"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"710","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijcard.2014.04.201","article-title":"Molecular analysis of oral bacteria in dental biofilm and atherosclerotic plaques of patients with vascular disease","volume":"174","author":"Fernandes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3313","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.00377-06","article-title":"Detection of cariogenic Streptococcus mutans in extirpated heart valve and atheromatous plaque specimens","volume":"44","author":"Nakano","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1046\/j.0143-2885.2001.00489.x","article-title":"Invasion of vascular cells in vitro by Porphyromonas endodontalis","volume":"35","author":"Dorn","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int. Endod. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"624","DOI":"10.1177\/00220345670460033001","article-title":"Occurrence of C-reactive protein in oral disease","volume":"46","author":"Boucher","year":"1967","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.2010.100511","article-title":"Chronic periodontitis and C-reactive protein levels","volume":"82","author":"Passos","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1177\/00220345000790010701","article-title":"Acute-phase inflammatory response to periodontal disease in the US population","volume":"79","author":"Slade","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1221","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.2000.72.9.1221","article-title":"Periodontal infections contribute to elevated systemic C-reactive protein level","volume":"72","author":"Noack","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1172","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.163.10.1172","article-title":"Relationship between periodontal disease and C-reactive protein among adults in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study","volume":"163","author":"Slade","year":"2003","journal-title":"Arch. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199902113400607","article-title":"Acute-phase proteins and other systemic responses to inflammation","volume":"340","author":"Gabay","year":"1999","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1189","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-051X.2005.00856.x","article-title":"Serum antibodies to periodontal pathogens and markers of systemic inflammation","volume":"32","author":"Dye","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-051X.2007.01179.x","article-title":"C-reactive protein associated with periodontitis in a Thai population","volume":"35","author":"Pitiphat","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"e1","article-title":"Pathogenesis of apical periodontitis: A literature review","volume":"2","author":"Graunaite","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Oral Maxillofac. Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joen.2013.06.014","article-title":"Can apical periodontitis modify systemic levels of inflammatory markers? A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"39","author":"Gomes","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Endod."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2001","article-title":"The immune system in atherosclerosis","volume":"12","author":"Hansson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2045","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.108.179705","article-title":"Inflammation in atherosclerosis","volume":"32","author":"Libby","year":"2012","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"516","DOI":"10.1038\/nrcardio.2014.91","article-title":"The role of heat shock proteins in atherosclerosis","volume":"11","author":"Wick","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2015.08.007","article-title":"Systemic lupus erythematosus and atherosclerosis: Review of the literature","volume":"15","author":"Frieri","year":"2016","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"214","DOI":"10.1038\/nrrheum.2012.14","article-title":"Accelerated atherosclerosis in patients with SLE\u2014Mechanisms and management","volume":"8","author":"Skaggs","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1038\/nrrheum.2011.75","article-title":"Epidemiology of CVD in rheumatic disease, with a focus on RA and SLE","volume":"7","author":"Symmons","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2123","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.201500131","article-title":"Specific autoantigens in experimental autoimmunity-associated atherosclerosis","volume":"30","author":"Merched","year":"2016","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.2009.080422","article-title":"Autoreactivity of serum immunoglobulin to periodontal tissue components: A pilot study","volume":"80","author":"Koutouzis","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1409","DOI":"10.1126\/science.8451637","article-title":"Cells in stress: Transcriptional activation of heat shock genes","volume":"259","author":"Morimoto","year":"1993","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1590\/S0103-64402007000400001","article-title":"Bacterial pathogenesis and mediators in apical periodontitis","volume":"18","author":"Siqueira","year":"2007","journal-title":"Braz. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1177\/154411130301400603","article-title":"Oral microbial heat-shock proteins and their potential contributions to infections","volume":"14","author":"Goulhen","year":"2003","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Oral Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"923","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-051X.2012.01934.x","article-title":"Periodontal pathogen load and increased antibody response to heat shock protein 60 in patients with cardiovascular disease","volume":"39","author":"Leishman","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Clin. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1399-302X.2005.00230.x","article-title":"Cross-reactivity of GroEL antibodies with human heat shock protein 60 and quantification of pathogens in atherosclerosis","volume":"20","author":"Ford","year":"2005","journal-title":"Oral Microbiol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2492","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.70.5.2492-2501.2002","article-title":"Accumulation of human heat shock protein 60-reactive T cells in the gingival tissues of periodontitis patients","volume":"70","author":"Yamazaki","year":"2002","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1169","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.100.11.1169","article-title":"Association of serum antibodies to heat-shock protein 65 with carotid atherosclerosis : Clinical significance determined in a follow-up study","volume":"100","author":"Xu","year":"1999","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1719","DOI":"10.1002\/art.37961","article-title":"Brief report: Citrullination within the atherosclerotic plaque: A potential target for the anti-citrullinated protein antibody response in rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"65","author":"Sokolove","year":"2013","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbspin.2012.01.008","article-title":"Citrullination under physiological and pathological conditions","volume":"79","author":"Baka","year":"2012","journal-title":"Joint Bone Spine"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"433","DOI":"10.1021\/cb6002306","article-title":"Histone citrullination by protein arginine deiminase: Is arginine methylation a green light or a roadblock?","volume":"1","author":"Thompson","year":"2006","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1186\/ar3000","article-title":"Bacterial and human peptidylarginine deiminases: Targets for inhibiting the autoimmune response in rheumatoid arthritis?","volume":"12","author":"Mangat","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arthritis Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2662","DOI":"10.1002\/art.27552","article-title":"Peptidylarginine deiminase from Porphyromonas gingivalis citrullinates human fibrinogen and \u03b1-enolase: Implications for autoimmunity in rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"62","author":"Wegner","year":"2010","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheum."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1007\/s11926-014-0408-9","article-title":"The link between periodontal disease and rheumatoid arthritis: An updated review","volume":"16","author":"Koziel","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Rheumatol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2012-202726","article-title":"Heightened immune response to autocitrullinated Porphyromonas gingivalis peptidylarginine deiminase: A potential mechanism for breaching immunologic tolerance in rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"73","author":"Quirke","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1090","DOI":"10.1002\/art.38348","article-title":"Periodontitis and Porphyromonas gingivalis in patients with rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"66","author":"Mikuls","year":"2014","journal-title":"Arthritis Rheumatol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2066","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.2005.76.11-S.2066","article-title":"Periodontitis and rheumatoid arthritis: A review","volume":"76","author":"Bartold","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"534","article-title":"Association of anti-citrullinated protein or peptide antibodies with left ventricular structure and function in rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"56","author":"Russo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rheumatology"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1615\/CritRevImmunol.v31.i5.20","article-title":"LPS-induced cytokine production in human monocytes and macrophages","volume":"31","author":"Rossol","year":"2011","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1433","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.106.138743","article-title":"Endotoxemia, immune response to periodontal pathogens, and systemic inflammation associate with incident cardiovascular disease events","volume":"27","author":"Pussinen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1007\/s00592-014-0662-3","article-title":"Endotoxemia, nutrition, and cardiometabolic disorders","volume":"52","author":"Kallio","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Diabetol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zijnge, V., Kieselbach, T., and Oscarsson, J. (2012). Proteomics of protein secretion by Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0041662"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2443","DOI":"10.1099\/mic.0.082347-0","article-title":"Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans leukotoxin (LtxA; Leukothera) induces cofilin dephosphorylation and actin depolymerization during killing of malignant monocytes","volume":"160","author":"Kaur","year":"2014","journal-title":"Microbiology"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2013.05.001","article-title":"Effects of Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans leukotoxin on endothelial cells","volume":"61\u201362","author":"Dietmann","year":"2013","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"369ra176","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aaj1921","article-title":"Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans-induced hypercitrullination links periodontal infection to autoimmunity in rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"8","author":"Konig","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4532","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jproteome.6b00634","article-title":"Extracellular Proteome and Citrullinome of the Oral Pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis","volume":"15","author":"Stobernack","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Proteome Res."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1111\/jre.12527","article-title":"Lipoprotein modifications by gingipains of Porphyromonas gingivalis","volume":"53","author":"Ljunggren","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Periodontal. Res."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2006.02.016","article-title":"Innate immunity gone awry: Linking microbial infections to chronic inflammation and cancer","volume":"124","author":"Karin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/S0952-7915(01)00307-7","article-title":"Scavenger receptors in innate immunity","volume":"14","author":"Peiser","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1038\/nri957","article-title":"A blast from the past: Clearance of apoptotic cells regulates immune responses","volume":"2","author":"Savill","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"503","DOI":"10.1016\/S0092-8674(01)00238-0","article-title":"Atherosclerosis. the road ahead","volume":"104","author":"Glass","year":"2001","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"836","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM200003233421202","article-title":"C-reactive protein and other markers of inflammation in the prediction of cardiovascular disease in women","volume":"342","author":"Ridker","year":"2000","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1767","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.101.15.1767","article-title":"Plasma concentration of interleukin-6 and the risk of future myocardial infarction among apparently healthy men","volume":"101","author":"Ridker","year":"2000","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1707914","article-title":"Antiinflammatory Therapy with Canakinumab for Atherosclerotic Disease","volume":"377","author":"Ridker","year":"2017","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3720","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2010-07-273417","article-title":"Interleukin-1 in the pathogenesis and treatment of inflammatory diseases","volume":"117","author":"Dinarello","year":"2011","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmm.2007.06.005","article-title":"IL-1beta secretion induced by Aggregatibacter (Actinobacillus) actinomycetemcomitans is mainly caused by the leukotoxin","volume":"298","author":"Kelk","year":"2008","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.160.1.403","article-title":"IL-1 and TNF antagonists inhibit the inflammatory response and bone loss in experimental periodontitis","volume":"160","author":"Assuma","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1419","DOI":"10.1902\/jop.1998.69.12.1419","article-title":"Interleukin-1 and tumor necrosis factor antagonists inhibit the progression of inflammatory cell infiltration toward alveolar bone in experimental periodontitis","volume":"69","author":"Graves","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Periodontol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"960","DOI":"10.1161\/ATVBAHA.110.217877","article-title":"Heat shock protein 60 and immune inflammatory responses in atherosclerosis","volume":"31","author":"Grundtman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1097\/MOL.0b013e32834aa0c2","article-title":"The autoimmune concept of atherosclerosis","volume":"22","author":"Grundtman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Lipidol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/S1568-9972(03)00088-0","article-title":"Autoimmunity to heat shock proteins in atherosclerosis","volume":"3","author":"Mandal","year":"2004","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"996","DOI":"10.1177\/154405910608501104","article-title":"Lesions of endodontic origin and risk of coronary heart disease","volume":"85","author":"Caplan","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Dent. Res."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joen.2005.10.039","article-title":"Pulpal inflammation and incidence of coronary heart disease","volume":"32","author":"Joshipura","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Endod."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.14219\/jada.archive.2009.0311","article-title":"The relationship between self-reported history of endodontic therapy and coronary heart disease in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study","volume":"140","author":"Caplan","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Am. Dent. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1570","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joen.2012.08.013","article-title":"Association among oral health, apical periodontitis, CD14 polymorphisms, and coronary heart disease in middle-aged adults","volume":"38","author":"Pasqualini","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Endod."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1813","DOI":"10.1007\/s00784-013-1156-3","article-title":"The association of chronic apical periodontitis and endodontic therapy with atherosclerosis","volume":"18","author":"Petersen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Oral Investig."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.joen.2013.10.026","article-title":"Association between chronic apical periodontitis and coronary artery disease","volume":"40","author":"Costa","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Endod."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1111\/iej.12468","article-title":"Apical periodontitis and incident cardiovascular events in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Ageing","volume":"49","author":"Gomes","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. Endod. J."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1184","DOI":"10.1136\/annrheumdis-2016-209991","article-title":"Presence of anticitrullinated protein antibodies in a large population-based cohort from the Netherlands","volume":"76","author":"Arends","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Rheum. Dis."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2520","DOI":"10.1161\/CIR.0b013e31825719f3","article-title":"Periodontal disease and atherosclerotic vascular disease: Does the evidence support an independent association?: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association","volume":"125","author":"Lockhart","year":"2012","journal-title":"Circulation"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/19\/7\/1978\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T15:11:33Z","timestamp":1760195493000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/19\/7\/1978"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,6]]},"references-count":97,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms19071978"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms19071978","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,6]]}}}