{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,21]],"date-time":"2026-09-21T18:59:37Z","timestamp":1790017177864,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":162,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,30]],"date-time":"2018-11-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1543536000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Alzheimer's Research UK","award":["3858"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["3858"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>For a number of years, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidases (NOX) was synonymous with NOX2\/gp91phox and was considered to be a peculiarity of professional phagocytic cells. Over the last decade, several more homologs have been identified and based on current research, the NOX family consists of NOX1, NOX2, NOX3, NOX4, NOX5, DUOX1 and DUOX2 enzymes. NOXs are electron transporting membrane proteins that are responsible for reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation\u2014primarily superoxide anion (O2\u25cf\u2212), although hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) can also be generated. Elevated ROS leads to oxidative stress (OS), which has been associated with a myriad of inflammatory and degenerative pathologies. Interestingly, OS is also the commonality in the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer\u2019s disease (AD), Parkinson\u2019s disease (PD), Huntington\u2019s disease (HD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and multiple sclerosis (MS). NOX enzymes are expressed in neurons, glial cells and cerebrovascular endothelial cells. NOX-mediated OS is identified as one of the main causes of cerebrovascular damage in neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we will discuss recent developments in our understanding of the mechanisms linking NOX activity, OS and neurodegenerative diseases, with particular focus on the neurovascular component of these conditions. We conclude highlighting current challenges and future opportunities to combat age-related neurodegenerative disorders by targeting NOXs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19123824","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,30]],"date-time":"2018-11-30T12:13:17Z","timestamp":1543579997000},"page":"3824","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":352,"title":["The Role of NADPH Oxidases and Oxidative Stress in Neurodegenerative Disorders"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"19","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2580-9394","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anuradha","family":"Tarafdar","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (IBCS), College of Medicine and Health (CMH), St. Luke\u2019s Campus, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7769-1140","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Giordano","family":"Pula","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences (IBCS), College of Medicine and Health (CMH), St. Luke\u2019s Campus, University of Exeter, Exeter EX4 4QL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1038\/43459","article-title":"Cell transformation by the superoxide-generating oxidase Mox1","volume":"401","author":"Suh","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37265","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.274.52.37265","article-title":"Purification of a Novel Flavoprotein Involved in the Thyroid NADPH Oxidase: Cloning of the porcine and human cDNAs","volume":"274","author":"Dupuy","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00044.2005","article-title":"The NOX family of ROS-generating NADPH oxidases: Physiology and pathophysiology","volume":"87","author":"Bedard","year":"2007","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tips.2012.03.008","article-title":"NADPH oxidases: Novel therapeutic targets for neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"33","author":"Gao","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trends Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8010","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.130135897","article-title":"Identification of Renox, an NAD(P)H oxidase in kidney","volume":"97","author":"Geiszt","year":"2000","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1126\/science.287.5450.138","article-title":"A mammalian H+ channel generated through alternative splicing of the NADPH oxidase homolog NOH-1","volume":"287","author":"Maturana","year":"2000","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37594","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M103034200","article-title":"A Ca2+-activated NADPH Oxidase in Testis, Spleen, and Lymph Nodes","volume":"276","author":"Maturana","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1119(01)00449-8","article-title":"Homologs of gp91phox: Cloning and tissue expression of Nox3, Nox4, and Nox5","volume":"269","author":"Cheng","year":"2001","journal-title":"Gene"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23227","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M000916200","article-title":"Cloning of two human thyroid cDNAs encoding new members of the NADPH oxidase family","volume":"275","author":"Wang","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2009.07.023","article-title":"Nox proteins in signal transduction","volume":"47","author":"Brown","year":"2009","journal-title":"Free Radical Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6764","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1702293114","article-title":"Crystal structures and atomic model of NADPH oxidase","volume":"114","author":"Magnani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18583","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M310268200","article-title":"Mechanism of Ca2+ Activation of the NADPH Oxidase 5 (NOX5)","volume":"279","author":"Tirone","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1401","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.14158","article-title":"Dual oxidase: A novel therapeutic target in allergic disease","volume":"175","author":"Vliet","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2014.07.046","article-title":"Nox family NADPH oxidases: Molecular mechanisms of activation","volume":"76","author":"Brandes","year":"2014","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2016.00301","article-title":"NOX Activation by Subunit Interaction and Underlying Mechanisms in Disease","volume":"10","author":"Rastogi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2011.03.025","article-title":"NADPH-oxidase activation and cognition in Alzheimer disease progression","volume":"51","author":"Ansari","year":"2011","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"406","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2013.5814","article-title":"Evolution of NADPH Oxidase Inhibitors: Selectivity and Mechanisms for Target Engagement","volume":"23","author":"Radermacher","year":"2015","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cellsig.2005.03.023","article-title":"Functional analysis of Nox4 reveals unique characteristics compared to other NADPH oxidases","volume":"18","author":"Martyn","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell. Signal."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phrs.2016.10.015","article-title":"NADPH oxidases and vascular remodeling in cardiovascular diseases","volume":"114","author":"Aguado","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.95.3.557","article-title":"Oxidative stress produced by angiotensin too. Implications for hypertension and vascular injury","volume":"95","author":"Oskarsson","year":"1997","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1042\/CS20150087","article-title":"NADPH oxidases: Key modulators in aging and age-related cardiovascular diseases?","volume":"130","author":"Sahoo","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"512","DOI":"10.1161\/01.ATV.0000154141.66879.98","article-title":"p47phox associates with the cytoskeleton through cortactin in human vascular smooth muscle cells: Role in NAD(P)H oxidase regulation by angiotensin II","volume":"25","author":"Touyz","year":"2005","journal-title":"Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.110.159889","article-title":"Mitogen-activated protein kinase-activated protein kinase 2 in angiotensin II-induced inflammation and hypertension: Regulation of oxidative stress","volume":"57","author":"Ebrahimian","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2481","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2009.2578","article-title":"NOX enzymes in the central nervous system: From signaling to disease","volume":"11","author":"Sorce","year":"2009","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00026.2013","article-title":"Mitochondrial Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and ROS-Induced ROS Release","volume":"94","author":"Zorov","year":"2014","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Panchal, K., and Tiwari, A.K. (2018). Mitochondrial dynamics, a key executioner in neurodegenerative diseases. Mitochondrion.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mito.2018.11.002"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3565127","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/3565127","article-title":"ROS, Cell Senescence, and Novel Molecular Mechanisms in Aging and Age-Related Diseases","volume":"2016","author":"Davalli","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longevity"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.117.311401","article-title":"Reactive Oxygen Species in Metabolic and Inflammatory Signaling","volume":"122","author":"Forrester","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2015.00065","article-title":"Role of amyloid peptides in vascular dysfunction and platelet dysregulation in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"9","author":"Canobbio","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.3233\/BPL-170044","article-title":"Mitochondrial Metabolism-Mediated Regulation of Adult Neurogenesis","volume":"3","author":"Beckervordersandforth","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Plast."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.01487","article-title":"Mitochondria, Oxidative Stress and Innate Immunity","volume":"9","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1002\/1873-3468.12956","article-title":"Mitochondrial DNA damage and reactive oxygen species in neurodegenerative disease","volume":"592","author":"Nissanka","year":"2018","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1179\/135100009X392566","article-title":"Hydroxyl radical is produced via the Fenton reaction in submitochondrial particles under oxidative stress: Implications for diseases associated with iron accumulation","volume":"14","author":"Thomas","year":"2009","journal-title":"Redox Rep."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1750-3639.1999.tb00215.x","article-title":"Oxidative alterations in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"9","author":"Markesbery","year":"1999","journal-title":"Brain Pathol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2645","DOI":"10.1021\/bi00280a008","article-title":"Hydroxyl free radical formation from hydrogen peroxide by ferrous iron-nucleotide complexes","volume":"22","author":"Floyd","year":"1983","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"w13659","DOI":"10.4414\/smw.2012.13659","article-title":"Reactive oxygen species: From health to disease","volume":"142","author":"Brieger","year":"2012","journal-title":"Swiss Med. Wkly."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1111\/bcp.12357","article-title":"Oxidative stress, redox signalling and endothelial dysfunction in ageing-related neurodegenerative diseases: A role of NADPH oxidase 2","volume":"78","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2334","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biocel.2004.05.012","article-title":"Proteins are major initial cell targets of hydroxyl free radicals","volume":"36","author":"Du","year":"2004","journal-title":"Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1082","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-291X(85)90296-7","article-title":"Endogenous free radical generation may influence proteolysis in mitochondria","volume":"126","author":"Dean","year":"1985","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1097\/WOX.0b013e3182439613","article-title":"Oxidative stress and antioxidant defense","volume":"5","author":"Birben","year":"2012","journal-title":"World Allergy Organ. J."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9908","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)48020-9","article-title":"Protein damage and degradation by oxygen radicals. III. Modification of secondary and tertiary structure","volume":"262","author":"Davies","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9914","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)48021-0","article-title":"Protein damage and degradation by oxygen radicals. IV. Degradation of denatured protein","volume":"262","author":"Davies","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1081\/DMR-100102336","article-title":"Quantification and significance of protein oxidation in biological samples","volume":"32","author":"Shacter","year":"2000","journal-title":"Drug Metab. Rev."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1860","DOI":"10.2337\/db11-1658","article-title":"Reactive oxygen species signaling facilitates FOXO-3a\/FBXO-dependent vascular BK channel \u03b21 subunit degradation in diabetic mice","volume":"61","author":"Lu","year":"2012","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"51","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2015.06.019","article-title":"Redox regulation of FoxO transcription factors","volume":"6","author":"Klotz","year":"2015","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pharmtox-011112-140320","article-title":"Role of nrf2 in oxidative stress and toxicity","volume":"53","author":"Ma","year":"2013","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbagen.2014.11.021","article-title":"Nrf2 regulates ROS production by mitochondria and NADPH oxidase","volume":"1850","author":"Kovac","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.4161\/cc.23418","article-title":"A novel link between p53 and ROS","volume":"12","author":"He","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Cycle"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1038\/cr.2010.178","article-title":"Crosstalk of reactive oxygen species and NF-\u03baB signaling","volume":"21","author":"Morgan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcb.2015.12.002","article-title":"TNF and ROS Crosstalk in Inflammation","volume":"26","author":"Blaser","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2013.11.023","article-title":"Reactive oxygen species activate NF\u03baB (p65) and p53 and induce apoptosis in RVFV infected liver cells","volume":"449","author":"Narayanan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9108","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M007666200","article-title":"Induction of activator protein-1 through reactive oxygen species by crystalline silica in JB6 cells","volume":"276","author":"Ding","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Riera, H., Afonso, V., Collin, P., and Lomri, A. (2015). A Central Role for JNK\/AP-1 Pathway in the Pro-Oxidant Effect of Pyrrolidine Dithiocarbamate through Superoxide Dismutase 1 Gene Repression and Reactive Oxygen Species Generation in Hematopoietic Human Cancer Cell Line U937. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0127571"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"696","DOI":"10.1002\/jcb.25074","article-title":"Regulation of hypoxia-inducible factor-1a by reactive oxygen species: New developments in an old debate","volume":"116","author":"Movafagh","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Cell. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"856","article-title":"The multiple roles of FOXO transcription factors","volume":"20","author":"Brunet","year":"2004","journal-title":"Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2010.3405","article-title":"Forkhead homeobox type O transcription factors in the responses to oxidative stress","volume":"14","author":"Storz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1052413","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/1052413","article-title":"Changes of KEAP1\/NRF2 and IKB\/NF-\u03baB Expression Levels Induced by Cell-Free DNA in Different Cell Types","volume":"2018","author":"Kostyuk","year":"2018","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longevity"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2776(08)60740-3","article-title":"NF-IL6 and NF-\u03baB in cytokine gene regulation","volume":"65","author":"Akira","year":"1997","journal-title":"Adv. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1111\/jnc.13024","article-title":"Lipid peroxidation is essential for \u03b1-synuclein-induced cell death","volume":"133","author":"Angelova","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"613","article-title":"Lipid peroxidation, reactive oxygen species and antioxidative factors in the pathogenesis of gastric mucosal lesions and mechanism of protection against oxidative stress-induced gastric injury","volume":"65","author":"Kwiecien","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Riddle, D.R. (2007). Frontiers in Neuroscience Oxidative Stress and the Aging Brain: From Theory to Prevention. Brain Aging: Models, Methods, and Mechanisms, CRC Press\/Taylor & Francis Group, LLC."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cger.2004.02.005","article-title":"Free radicals and brain aging","volume":"20","author":"Poon","year":"2004","journal-title":"Clin. Geriatr. Med."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1093\/geronj\/11.3.298","article-title":"Aging: A theory based on free radical and radiation chemistry","volume":"11","author":"Harman","year":"1956","journal-title":"J. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2013.5228","article-title":"The Free Radical Theory of Aging Is Dead. Long Live the Damage Theory!","volume":"20","author":"Gladyshev","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"963520","article-title":"ROS and brain diseases: The good, the bad, and the ugly","volume":"2013","author":"Mitran","year":"2013","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longevity"},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"124","article-title":"Microglial cell dysregulation in brain aging and neurodegeneration","volume":"7","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Aging Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1287","DOI":"10.1023\/B:NERE.0000023615.89699.63","article-title":"Gene expression profiling in fetal, aged, and Alzheimer hippocampus: A continuum of stress-related signaling","volume":"29","author":"Lukiw","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"909","DOI":"10.1016\/S0197-4580(01)00290-1","article-title":"Chemokines and Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"22","author":"Streit","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-5728(01)00316-2","article-title":"Regulation of interleukin-6 gene expression in brain of aged mice by nuclear factor \u03baB","volume":"117","author":"Ye","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1005.e1023","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurobiolaging.2011.09.035","article-title":"The age-related deficit in LTP is associated with changes in perfusion and blood-brain barrier permeability","volume":"33","author":"Blau","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Aging"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-016-3578-5","article-title":"Activated microglia induce the production of reactive oxygen species and promote apoptosis of co-cultured retinal microvascular pericytes","volume":"255","author":"Ding","year":"2017","journal-title":"Graefe\u2019s Arch. Clin. Exp. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2009.02.001","article-title":"Microglia-aging: Roles of microglial lysosome- and mitochondria-derived reactive oxygen species in brain aging","volume":"201","author":"Nakanishi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.20468","article-title":"Microglia derived from aging mice exhibit an altered inflammatory profile","volume":"55","author":"Sierra","year":"2007","journal-title":"Glia"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1016\/S0161-813X(01)00033-X","article-title":"Microglia and macrophages in the developing CNS","volume":"22","author":"Streit","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-5728(02)00354-5","article-title":"TGF-\u03b21 upregulates CX3CR1 expression and inhibits fractalkine-stimulated signaling in rat microglia","volume":"133","author":"Chen","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-4159.2012.07887.x","article-title":"Modulation of interferon-\u03b3-induced glial cell activation by transforming growth factor \u03b21: A role for STAT1 and MAPK pathways","volume":"123","author":"Flores","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1097\/00019052-200206000-00001","article-title":"Pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis: An update on immunology","volume":"15","author":"Hemmer","year":"2002","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1002\/wdev.86","article-title":"The TGF\u03b2 superfamily signaling pathway","volume":"2","author":"Weiss","year":"2013","journal-title":"Wiley Interdiscipl. Rev. Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8624","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1957-08.2008","article-title":"Reverse of age-dependent memory impairment and mitochondrial DNA damage in microglia by an overexpression of human mitochondrial transcription factor a in mice","volume":"28","author":"Hayashi","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1007\/s40263-017-0483-3","article-title":"Targeting Neuroinflammation to Treat Alzheimer\u2019s Disease","volume":"31","author":"Boddeke","year":"2017","journal-title":"CNS Drugs"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1007\/s12264-016-0055-4","article-title":"Inflammatory Cytokines and Alzheimer\u2019s Disease: A Review from the Perspective of Genetic Polymorphisms","volume":"32","author":"Su","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurosci. Bull."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2167","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-017-2463-7","article-title":"Clearance of cerebral A\u03b2 in Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Reassessing the role of microglia and monocytes","volume":"74","author":"Zuroff","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.2174\/1567205014666170317113606","article-title":"Impact of Cytokines and Chemokines on Alzheimer\u2019s Disease Neuro-pathological Hallmarks","volume":"14","author":"Domingues","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Alzheimer Res."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cnur.2018.05.002","article-title":"Degenerative or Debilitative Neurologic Syndromes","volume":"53","author":"Parish","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nurs. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1532-5415.2002.50367.x","article-title":"Mixed dementia: Epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment","volume":"50","author":"Zekry","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Am. Geriatr. Soc."},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"(2018, October 29). Alzheimers Society. Available online: https:\/\/www.alzheimers.org.uk\/."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1080\/1521654031000153049","article-title":"A Role for NOX NADPH Oxidases in Alzheimer\u2019s Disease and Other Types of Dementia?","volume":"55","author":"Zekry","year":"2003","journal-title":"IUBMB Life"},{"key":"ref_88","first-page":"1121","article-title":"The role of cerebral amyloid \u03b2 accumulation in common forms of Alzheimer disease","volume":"115","author":"Gandy","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2013.5847","article-title":"Amyloid-\u03b2 and tau: The trigger and bullet in Alzheimer disease pathogenesis","volume":"71","author":"Bloom","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e8763","DOI":"10.15252\/emmm.201708763","article-title":"Amyloid blood biomarker detects Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"10","author":"Nabers","year":"2018","journal-title":"EMBO Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"871","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.22516","article-title":"Cerebral amyloid angiopathy in the elderly","volume":"70","author":"Viswanathan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.2741\/E605","article-title":"Genetics of familial and sporadic Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"5","author":"Piaceri","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_93","first-page":"65","article-title":"Causes of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"162","author":"Munoz","year":"2000","journal-title":"Can. Med. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2017.10.014","article-title":"Oxidative stress and the amyloid \u03b2 peptide in Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"14","author":"Cheignon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1016\/j.maturitas.2014.07.001","article-title":"What is frontotemporal dementia?","volume":"79","author":"Kurz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Maturitas"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"874","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1984.04050190080019","article-title":"Subcortical dementia: Review of an emerging concept","volume":"41","author":"Cummings","year":"1984","journal-title":"Arch. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1177\/0891988716654985","article-title":"Parkinson Disease and Dementia","volume":"29","author":"Kramberger","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geriatr. Psychiatry Neurol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2012.03.029","article-title":"Cognitive impairment and dementia in Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"46","author":"Pagonabarraga","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1159\/000341998","article-title":"Cognitive impairment in Parkinson\u2019s disease: The dual syndrome hypothesis","volume":"11","author":"Kehagia","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuro-Degener. Dis."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1186\/1750-1172-5-40","article-title":"Huntington\u2019s disease: A clinical review","volume":"5","author":"Roos","year":"2010","journal-title":"Orphanet J. Rare Dis."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-444-52014-2.00001-X","article-title":"Huntington\u2019s disease\u2014Clinical signs, symptoms, presymptomatic diagnosis, and diagnosis","volume":"100","author":"Shannon","year":"2011","journal-title":"Handb. Clin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0034-1381741","article-title":"Dementia with Lewy bodies","volume":"34","author":"Mayo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Semin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1093\/ageing\/afp020","article-title":"Movement disorders after stroke","volume":"38","author":"Handley","year":"2009","journal-title":"Age Ageing"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jstrokecerebrovasdis.2008.07.010","article-title":"Cognitive Consequences of Multiple Lacunes and Leukoaraiosis as Vascular Cognitive Impairment in Community-Dwelling Elderly Individuals","volume":"18","author":"Koga","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Stroke Cerebrovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.4068\/cmj.2011.47.2.66","article-title":"Vascular dementia","volume":"47","author":"Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Chonnam Med. J."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1177\/0891988716654987","article-title":"Update on Vascular Dementia","volume":"29","author":"Khan","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Geriatr. Psychiatry Neurol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1177\/1747493017741384","article-title":"Cerebral amyloid angiopathy, cerebral microbleeds and implications for anticoagulation decisions: The need for a balanced approach Update on Vascular Dementia RAGE Expression and ROS Generation in Neurons: Differentiation versus Damage","volume":"13","author":"Charidimou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Stroke"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.17116\/jnevro201511551120-126","article-title":"A modern concept of mixed dementia","volume":"115","author":"Bogolepova","year":"2015","journal-title":"Zhurnal Nevrol. Psikhiatrii Imeni"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a020412","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a020412","article-title":"The blood-brain barrier","volume":"7","author":"Daneman","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1248","DOI":"10.1007\/s00115-015-4407-5","article-title":"Cerebral amyloid angiopathy and dementia: Causes of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"86","author":"Berlit","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nervenarzt"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1590\/1980-57642016dn11-040005","article-title":"Mixed dementia: A review of the evidence","volume":"11","author":"Custodio","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dement. Neuropsychol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24438","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms141224438","article-title":"Oxidative stress and neurodegenerative disorders","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2013","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"806","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2018.00806","article-title":"Oxidative Stress: A Major Player in Cerebrovascular Alterations Associated to Neurodegenerative Events","volume":"9","author":"Carvalho","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1152\/japplphysiol.00966.2005","article-title":"Neurovascular coupling in the normal brain and in hypertension, stroke, and Alzheimer disease","volume":"100","author":"Girouard","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Appl. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.113.01761","article-title":"Circulating endothelin-1 alters critical mechanisms regulating cerebral microcirculation","volume":"62","author":"Faraco","year":"2013","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2008.01.003","article-title":"The blood-brain barrier in health and chronic neurodegenerative disorders","volume":"57","author":"Zlokovic","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1007\/s12640-012-9322-y","article-title":"Nitric Oxide-Mediated Oxidative Damage and the Progressive Demise of Motor Neurons in ALS","volume":"22","author":"Drechsel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurotox. Res."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484613","DOI":"10.1155\/2013\/484613","article-title":"Role of redox signaling in neuroinflammation and neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"2013","author":"Hsieh","year":"2013","journal-title":"BioMed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2137","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2009.3059","article-title":"DJ-1 Cleavage by Matrix Metalloproteinase 3 Mediates Oxidative Stress-Induced Dopaminergic Cell Death","volume":"14","author":"Choi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, D.-H., Kim, J.-H., Seo, J.-H., Lee, J., Choi, W.S., and Kim, Y.-S. (2014). Matrix Metalloproteinase-3 Causes Dopaminergic Neuronal Death through Nox1-Regenerated Oxidative Stress. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0115954"},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9348651","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/9348651","article-title":"RAGE Expression and ROS Generation in Neurons: Differentiation versus Damage","volume":"2016","author":"Piras","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oxid. Med. Cell. Longevity"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20021","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0905686106","article-title":"RAGE-mediated signaling contributes to intraneuronal transport of amyloid-\u03b2 and neuronal dysfunction","volume":"106","author":"Takuma","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2017.01.013","article-title":"Neurovascular uncoupling in the triple transgenic model of Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Impaired cerebral blood flow response to neuronal-derived nitric oxide signaling","volume":"291","author":"Ledo","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02517","article-title":"Premature ageing in mice expressing defective mitochondrial DNA polymerase","volume":"429","author":"Trifunovic","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2815","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2013.5703","article-title":"New Insights on NOX Enzymes in the Central Nervous System","volume":"20","author":"Nayernia","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C422","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.00381.2008","article-title":"Nox4 NADPH oxidase mediates oxidative stress and apoptosis caused by TNF-\u03b1 in cerebral vascular endothelial cells","volume":"296","author":"Basuroy","year":"2009","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-010-8132-6","article-title":"Brain endothelial cell death: Modes, signaling pathways, and relevance to neural development, homeostasis, and disease","volume":"42","author":"Rizzo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46065","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M403046200","article-title":"NOX3, a superoxide-generating NADPH oxidase of the inner ear","volume":"279","author":"Banfi","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1583","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2006.8.1583","article-title":"NADPH oxidases of the brain: Distribution, regulation, and function","volume":"8","author":"Infanger","year":"2006","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2004.12.038","article-title":"Neuronal expression of the NADPH oxidase NOX4, and its regulation in mouse experimental brain ischemia","volume":"132","author":"Vallet","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, D.-H., and Lee, J. (2017). A Mini-Review of the NADPH Oxidases in Vascular Dementia: Correlation with NOXs and Risk Factors for VaD. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms18112500"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Raz, L., Zhang, Q.G., Zhou, C.F., Han, D., Gulati, P., Yang, L.C., Yang, F., Wang, R.M., and Brann, D.W. (2010). Role of Rac1 GTPase in NADPH oxidase activation and cognitive impairment following cerebral ischemia in the rat. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0012606"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17981","DOI":"10.1038\/srep17981","article-title":"Acupuncture elicits neuroprotective effect by inhibiting NAPDH oxidase-mediated reactive oxygen species production in cerebral ischaemia","volume":"5","author":"Shi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.111.173534","article-title":"Attenuation of brain damage and cognitive impairment by direct renin inhibition in mice with chronic cerebral hypoperfusion","volume":"58","author":"Dong","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1089\/ars.2012.5129","article-title":"NADPH oxidase 1, a novel molecular source of ROS in hippocampal neuronal death in vascular dementia","volume":"21","author":"Choi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Antioxid. Redox Signal."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"557","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09522","article-title":"Pericytes regulate the blood\u2013brain barrier","volume":"468","author":"Armulik","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.2174\/187152710791292639","article-title":"Glia as a turning point in the therapeutic strategy of Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"9","author":"Tirolo","year":"2010","journal-title":"CNS Neurol. Disord. Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6145","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0937239100","article-title":"NADPH oxidase mediates oxidative stress in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine model of Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"100","author":"Wu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1006\/bbrc.2000.2897","article-title":"Activation of NADPH oxidase in Alzheimer\u2019s disease brains","volume":"273","author":"Shimohama","year":"2000","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.3233\/JAD-2006-9209","article-title":"Molecular indices of oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction occur early and often progress with severity of Alzheimer\u2019s disease","volume":"9","author":"Wands","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Alzheimer\u2019s Dis."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2011.07.012","article-title":"Cognitive Impairment in Humanized APPxPS1 Mice is Linked to A\u03b2(1-42) and NOX Activation","volume":"44","author":"Gupta","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.2174\/157015912804499483","article-title":"NADPH Oxidase and Neurodegeneration","volume":"10","author":"Hernandes","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1347","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0711568105","article-title":"Nox2-derived radicals contribute to neurovascular and behavioral dysfunction in mice overexpressing the amyloid precursor protein","volume":"105","author":"Park","year":"2008","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/s13024-017-0150-7","article-title":"NADPH oxidase in brain injury and neurodegenerative disorders","volume":"12","author":"Ma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mol. Neurodegener."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salazar, G. (2018). NADPH Oxidases and Mitochondria in Vascular Senescence. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19051327"},{"key":"ref_146","first-page":"197","article-title":"Evidence of endothelial dysfunction in the development of Alzheimer\u2019s disease: Is Alzheimer\u2019s a vascular disorder?","volume":"3","author":"Kelleher","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Cardiovasc. Dis."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"202","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2005.02.001","article-title":"Neurovascular mechanisms of Alzheimer\u2019s neurodegeneration","volume":"28","author":"Zlokovic","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2423","DOI":"10.1021\/jf5041993","article-title":"Phenolic metabolites of anthocyanins modulate mechanisms of endothelial function","volume":"63","author":"Edwards","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food chem."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2034","DOI":"10.1002\/glia.22724","article-title":"Subpicomolar diphenyleneiodonium inhibits microglial NADPH oxidase with high specificity and shows great potential as a therapeutic agent for neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"62","author":"Wang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Glia"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2012.05.007","article-title":"Liver fibrosis and hepatocyte apoptosis are attenuated by GKT137831, a novel NOX4\/NOX1 inhibitor in vivo","volume":"53","author":"Jiang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Free Radical Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1647","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.13532","article-title":"Therapeutic potential of NADPH oxidase 1\/4 inhibitors","volume":"174","author":"Teixeira","year":"2017","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1007\/s00125-017-4215-5","article-title":"Combined NOX1\/4 inhibition with GKT137831 in mice provides dose-dependent reno- and atheroprotection even in established micro- and macrovascular disease","volume":"60","author":"Gray","year":"2017","journal-title":"Diabetologia"},{"key":"ref_153","unstructured":"(2018, October 20). Genkyotex. Available online: https:\/\/www.genkyotex.com\/en\/pipeline\/gkt771."},{"key":"ref_154","first-page":"6023","article-title":"Nox Inhibitors & Therapies: Rational Design of Peptidic and Small Molecule Inhibitors","volume":"21","author":"Meijles","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"981","DOI":"10.1021\/cb100219n","article-title":"A novel and specific NADPH oxidase-1 (Nox1) small-molecule inhibitor blocks the formation of functional invadopodia in human colon cancer cells","volume":"5","author":"Gianni","year":"2010","journal-title":"ACS Chem. Biol."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1476-5381.2012.02130.x","article-title":"The novel NOX inhibitor 2-acetylphenothiazine impairs collagen-dependent thrombus formation in a GPVI-dependent manner","volume":"168","author":"Vara","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1897","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2012.02.046","article-title":"Off-target thiol alkylation by the NADPH oxidase inhibitor 3-benzyl-7-(2-benzoxazolyl)thio-1,2,3-triazolo[4,5-d]pyrimidine (VAS2870)","volume":"52","author":"Sun","year":"2012","journal-title":"Free Radical Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16010","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.272.25.16010","article-title":"A Truncated HIV-1 Tat Protein Basic Domain Rapidly Translocates through the Plasma Membrane and Accumulates in the Cell Nucleus","volume":"272","author":"Brodin","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1161\/01.RES.0000063423.94645.8A","article-title":"Novel NAD(P)H oxidase inhibitor suppresses angioplasty-induced superoxide and neointimal hyperplasia of rat carotid artery","volume":"92","author":"Jacobson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Circul. Res."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1116","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2011.04.025","article-title":"Nox2 B-loop Peptide, Nox2ds, Specifically Inhibits Nox2 Oxidase","volume":"51","author":"Ghouleh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Free Radical Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1161\/hh1701.096037","article-title":"Novel competitive inhibitor of NAD(P)H oxidase assembly attenuates vascular O(2)(-) and systolic blood pressure in mice","volume":"89","author":"Rey","year":"2001","journal-title":"Circul. Res."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36437","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M113.521344","article-title":"Selective recapitulation of conserved and nonconserved regions of putative NOXA1 protein activation domain confers isoform-specific inhibition of Nox1 oxidase and attenuation of endothelial cell migration","volume":"288","author":"Ranayhossaini","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/19\/12\/3824\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,4]],"date-time":"2026-04-04T07:45:23Z","timestamp":1775288723000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/19\/12\/3824"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,30]]},"references-count":162,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms19123824"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms19123824","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,11,30]]}}}