{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,3]],"date-time":"2026-02-03T00:56:24Z","timestamp":1770080184097,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":169,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,4]],"date-time":"2019-11-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1572825600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sleep remains one of the least understood phenomena in biology, and sleep disturbances are one of the most common behavioral problems in childhood. The etiology of sleep disorders is complex and involves both genetic and environmental factors. Epilepsy is the most popular childhood neurological condition and is characterized by an enduring predisposition to generate epileptic seizures, and the neurobiological, cognitive, psychological, and social consequences of this condition. Sleep and epilepsy are interrelated, and the importance of sleep in epilepsy is less known. The state of sleep also influences whether a seizure will occur at a given time, and this differs considerably for various epilepsy syndromes. The development of epilepsy has been associated with single or multiple gene variants. The genetics of epilepsy is complex and disorders exhibit significant genetic heterogeneity and variability in the expressivity of seizures. Phenobarbital (PhB) is the most widely used antiepileptic drug. With its principal mechanism of action to prolong the opening time of the \u03b3-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-A receptor-associated chloride channel, it enhances chloride anion influx into neurons, with subsequent hyperpolarization, thereby reducing excitability. Enzymes that metabolize pharmaceuticals including PhB are well known for having genetic polymorphisms that contribute to adverse drug\u2013drug interactions. PhB metabolism is highly dependent upon the cytochrome P450 (CYP450) and genetic polymorphisms can lead to variability in active drug levels. The highly polymorphic CYP2C19 isozymes are responsible for metabolizing a large portion of routinely prescribed drugs and variants contribute significantly to adverse drug reactions and therapeutic failures. A limited number of CYP2C19 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are involved in drug metabolism. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are circular membrane fragments released from the endosomal compartment as exosomes are shed from the surfaces of the membranes of most cell types. Increasing evidence indicated that EVs play a pivotal role in cell-to-cell communication. Theses EVs may play an important role between sleep, epilepsy, and treatments. The discovery of exosomes provides potential strategies for the diagnosis and treatment of many diseases including neurocognitive deficit. The aim of this study is to better understand and provide further knowledge about the metabolism and interactions between phenobarbital and CYP2C19 polymorphisms in children with epilepsy, interplay between sleep, and EVs. Understanding this interplay between epilepsy and sleep is helpful in the optimal treatment of all patients with epileptic seizures. The use of genetics and extracellular vesicles as precision medicine for the diagnosis and treatment of children with sleep disorder will improve the prognosis and the quality of life in patients with epilepsy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20215483","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,4]],"date-time":"2019-11-04T10:49:07Z","timestamp":1572864547000},"page":"5483","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Genetics and Extracellular Vesicles of Pediatrics Sleep Disordered Breathing and Epilepsy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"20","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5811-5148","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Abdelnaby","family":"Khalyfa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, Section of Sleep Medicine, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA"},{"name":"Department of Child Health and the Child Health Research Institute, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, MO 65201, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5228-248X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Sanz-Rubio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Child Health and the Child Health Research Institute, University of Missouri School of Medicine, Columbia, MO 65201, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,11,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"9","article-title":"Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in the pediatric age: The role of the dentist","volume":"23","author":"Luzzi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. 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