{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,10]],"date-time":"2026-10-10T01:55:42Z","timestamp":1791597342950,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":186,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,20]],"date-time":"2020-03-20T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1584662400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>With an aging population, there is a proportional increase in the prevalence of intervertebral disc diseases. Intervertebral disc diseases are the leading cause of lower back pain and disability. With a high prevalence of asymptomatic intervertebral disc diseases, there is a need for accurate diagnosis, which is key to management. A thorough understanding of the pathophysiology and clinical manifestation aids in understanding the natural history of these conditions. Recent developments in radiological and biomarker investigations have potential to provide noninvasive alternatives to the gold standard, invasive discogram. There is a large volume of literature on the management of intervertebral disc diseases, which we categorized into five headings: (a) Relief of pain by conservative management, (b) restorative treatment by molecular therapy, (c) reconstructive treatment by percutaneous intervertebral disc techniques, (d) relieving compression and replacement surgery, and (e) rigid fusion surgery. This review article aims to provide an overview on various current diagnostic and treatment options and discuss the interplay between each arms of these scientific and treatment advancements, hence providing an outlook of their potential future developments and collaborations in the management of intervertebral disc diseases.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21062135","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,20]],"date-time":"2020-03-20T07:29:07Z","timestamp":1584689347000},"page":"2135","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":235,"title":["Intervertebral Disc Diseases PART 2: A Review of the Current Diagnostic and Treatment Strategies for Intervertebral Disc Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Pang Hung","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Spine Surgery, Nanoori Gangnam Hospital, Seoul 06048, Korea"},{"name":"Orthopaedic Surgery, Jurong Health Campus, National University Health Systems, Singapore 119228, Singapore"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5361-5234","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hyeun Sung","family":"Kim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spine Surgery, Nanoori Gangnam Hospital, Seoul 06048, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Il-Tae","family":"Jang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spine Surgery, Nanoori Gangnam Hospital, Seoul 06048, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,3,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2163","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(12)61729-2","article-title":"Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990\u20132010: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010","volume":"380","author":"Vos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1097\/00002517-200006000-00003","article-title":"The prevalence of low back pain: A systematic review of the literature from 1966 to 1998","volume":"13","author":"Walker","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. 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