{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T21:26:41Z","timestamp":1790717201000,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":63,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,30]],"date-time":"2020-05-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1590796800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Background: There are eighteen species within the Penicillium genus section chrysogena, including the original penicillin producers Penicillium notatum (Fleming strain) and Penicillium chrysogenum NRRL 1951. Other wild type isolates of the Penicillium genus are relevant for the production of useful proteins and primary or secondary metabolites. The aim of this article is to characterize strain specific genes and those genes which are involved in secondary metabolite biosynthesis, particularly the mutations that have been introduced during the \u03b2-lactams strain improvement programs. Results: The available genomes of several classical and novel P. chrysogenum strains have been compared. The first genome sequenced was that of the reference strain P. chrysogenum Wis54-1255, which derives from the wild type P. chrysogenum NRRL 1951; its genome size is 32.19 Mb and it encodes 12,943 proteins. Four chromosomes were resolved in P. chrysogenum and P. notatum by pulse field gel electrophoresis. The genomes of three industrial strains have a similar size but contain gene duplications and truncations; the penicillin gene cluster copy number ranges from one in the wild type to twelve in the P. chrysogenum ASP-E1 industrial strain and is organized in head to tail tandem repeats. The genomes of two new strains, P. chrysogenum KF-25, a producer of antifungal proteins isolated from a soil sample, and P. chrysogenum HKF2, a strain with carbohydrate-converting activities isolated from a sludge treatment plant, showed strain specific genes. Conclusions: The overall comparison of all available P. chrysogenum genomes indicates that there are a significant number of strain-specific genes, mutations of structural and regulatory genes, gene cluster duplications and DNA fragment translocations. This information provides important leads to improve the biosynthesis of enzymes, antifungal agents, prebiotics or different types of secondary metabolites.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21113936","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,2]],"date-time":"2020-06-02T04:09:03Z","timestamp":1591070943000},"page":"3936","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["Insight into the Genome of Diverse Penicillium chrysogenum Strains: Specific Genes, Cluster Duplications and DNA Fragment Translocations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"given":"Juan F.","family":"Mart\u00edn","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"\u00c1rea de Microbiolog\u00eda, Departamento de Biolog\u00eda Molecular, Universidad de Le\u00f3n, 24071 Le\u00f3n, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,5,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.3767\/003158512X660571","article-title":"New penicillin-producing Penicillium species and an overview of section Chrysogena","volume":"29","author":"Houbraken","year":"2012","journal-title":"Persoonia"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1080\/15572536.2005.11832908","article-title":"Genotypic variation in Penicillium chrysogenum from indoor environments","volume":"96","author":"Scott","year":"2004","journal-title":"Mycologia"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"226","article-title":"On the antibacterial action of cultures of a Penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae","volume":"10","author":"Fleming","year":"1929","journal-title":"Br. 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