{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T06:09:58Z","timestamp":1790230198224,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":215,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,26]],"date-time":"2020-06-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1593129600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In the 21st century, three highly pathogenic betacoronaviruses have emerged, with an alarming rate of human morbidity and case fatality. Genomic information has been widely used to understand the pathogenesis, animal origin and mode of transmission of coronaviruses in the aftermath of the 2002\u20132003 severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) and 2012 Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) outbreaks. Furthermore, genome sequencing and bioinformatic analysis have had an unprecedented relevance in the battle against the 2019\u20132020 coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, the newest and most devastating outbreak caused by a coronavirus in the history of mankind. Here, we review how genomic information has been used to tackle outbreaks caused by emerging, highly pathogenic, betacoronavirus strains, emphasizing on SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2. We focus on shared genomic features of the betacoronaviruses and the application of genomic information to phylogenetic analysis, molecular epidemiology and the design of diagnostic systems, potential drugs and vaccine candidates.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21124546","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,26]],"date-time":"2020-06-26T05:19:36Z","timestamp":1593148776000},"page":"4546","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Betacoronavirus Genomes: How Genomic Information has been Used to Deal with Past Outbreaks and the COVID-19 Pandemic"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6949-2782","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alejandro","family":"Llanes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Biolog\u00eda Celular y Molecular de Enfermedades, Instituto de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas y Servicios de Alta Tecnolog\u00eda (INDICASAT AIP), Panama City 0801, Panama"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1311-1132","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos M.","family":"Restrepo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Biolog\u00eda Celular y Molecular de Enfermedades, Instituto de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas y Servicios de Alta Tecnolog\u00eda (INDICASAT AIP), Panama City 0801, Panama"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4538-9489","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zuleima","family":"Caballero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Biolog\u00eda Celular y Molecular de Enfermedades, Instituto de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas y Servicios de Alta Tecnolog\u00eda (INDICASAT AIP), Panama City 0801, Panama"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6600-9102","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sreekumari","family":"Rajeev","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Melissa A.","family":"Kennedy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5830-6315","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ricardo","family":"Lleonart","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Biolog\u00eda Celular y Molecular de Enfermedades, Instituto de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas y Servicios de Alta Tecnolog\u00eda (INDICASAT AIP), Panama City 0801, Panama"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,6,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-018-0118-9","article-title":"Origin and evolution of pathogenic coronaviruses","volume":"17","author":"Cui","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. 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