{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,5]],"date-time":"2025-11-05T06:41:07Z","timestamp":1762324867115,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":175,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,30]],"date-time":"2020-11-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1606694400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004837","name":"Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovaci\u00f3n","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PID2019 110570GB-I00"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PID2019 110570GB-I00"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004837","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>It is being increasingly demonstrated that extracellular vesicles (EVs) are deeply involved in the physiology of the central nervous system (CNS). Processes such as synaptic activity, neuron-glia communication, myelination and immune response are modulated by EVs. Likewise, these vesicles may participate in many pathological processes, both as triggers of disease or, on the contrary, as mechanisms of repair. EVs play relevant roles in neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer\u2019s or Parkinson\u2019s diseases, in viral infections of the CNS and in demyelinating pathologies such as multiple sclerosis (MS). This review describes the involvement of these membrane vesicles in major demyelinating diseases, including MS, neuromyelitis optica, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy and demyelination associated to herpesviruses.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21239111","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,30]],"date-time":"2020-11-30T20:10:22Z","timestamp":1606767022000},"page":"9111","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["The Role of Extracellular Vesicles in Demyelination of the Central Nervous System"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"21","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2817-5956","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Antonio","family":"L\u00f3pez-Guerrero","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Biolog\u00eda Molecular, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Biolog\u00eda Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"In\u00e9s","family":"Ripa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Biolog\u00eda Molecular, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Biolog\u00eda Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0600-4152","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sabina","family":"Andreu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Biolog\u00eda Molecular, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Biolog\u00eda Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4415-6483","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Raquel","family":"Bello-Morales","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Biolog\u00eda Molecular, Universidad Aut\u00f3noma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain"},{"name":"Centro de Biolog\u00eda Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27066","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v4.27066","article-title":"Biological properties of extracellular vesicles and their physiological functions","volume":"4","author":"Siljander","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm.2017.125","article-title":"Shedding light on the cell biology of extracellular vesicles","volume":"19","author":"Raposo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2667","DOI":"10.1007\/s00018-011-0689-3","article-title":"Membrane vesicles, current state-of-the-art: Emerging role of extracellular vesicles","volume":"68","author":"Gyorgy","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Life Sci. Cmls"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Margolis, L., and Sadovsky, Y. (2019). The biology of extracellular vesicles: The known unknowns. PLoS Biol., 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.3000363"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kalra, H., Drummen, G.P., and Mathivanan, S. (2016). Focus on Extracellular Vesicles: Introducing the Next Small Big Thing. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms17020170"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"783","DOI":"10.1093\/biosci\/biv084","article-title":"Extracellular Vesicles: Composition, Biological Relevance, and Methods of Study","volume":"65","author":"Zaborowski","year":"2015","journal-title":"Bioscience"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.blre.2012.12.002","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles in physiological and pathological conditions","volume":"27","author":"Yuana","year":"2013","journal-title":"Blood Rev."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jurj, A., Pop-Bica, C., Slaby, O., Stefan, C.D., William, C.C., Korban, S.S., and Berindan-Neagoe, I. (2020). Tiny Actors in the Big Cellular World: Extracellular Vesicles Playing Critical Roles in Cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21207688"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00730","article-title":"Exosomes and Immune Response in Cancer: Friends or Foes?","volume":"9","author":"Barros","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2019.02.003","article-title":"Immune Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles\u2014Functions and Therapeutic Applications","volume":"25","author":"Veerman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1173","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI81131","article-title":"Regulation of chronic inflammatory and immune processes by extracellular vesicles","volume":"126","author":"Robbins","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.39629","article-title":"Potential roles of extracellular vesicles in the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of autoimmune diseases","volume":"16","author":"Tian","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2567","article-title":"Membrane vesicles as conveyors of immune responses","volume":"9","author":"Thery","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1462-5822.2010.01537.x","article-title":"Exosomes and other microvesicles in infection biology: Organelles with unanticipated phenotypes","volume":"13","author":"Silverman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.15252\/embr.201439363","article-title":"Exosomes and other extracellular vesicles in host-pathogen interactions","volume":"16","author":"Schorey","year":"2015","journal-title":"Embo Rep."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2572","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.02572","article-title":"Extracellular Vesicles in Herpes Viral Spread and Immune Evasion","volume":"9","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.coviro.2020.07.014","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles in virus infection and pathogenesis","volume":"44","author":"McNamara","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Virol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1038\/nrmicro.2017.60","article-title":"Viral effects on the content and function of extracellular vesicles","volume":"15","author":"Dittmer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5200","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02470-14","article-title":"Exosomal communication goes viral","volume":"89","author":"Meckes","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Doyle, L.M., and Wang, M.Z. (2019). Overview of Extracellular Vesicles, Their Origin, Composition, Purpose, and Methods for Exosome Isolation and Analysis. Cells, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells8070727"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcb.2015.01.004","article-title":"Ectosomes and exosomes: Shedding the confusion between extracellular vesicles","volume":"25","author":"Cocucci","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcb.2008.11.003","article-title":"Shedding microvesicles: Artefacts no more","volume":"19","author":"Cocucci","year":"2009","journal-title":"Trends Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.201211138","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles: Exosomes, microvesicles, and friends","volume":"200","author":"Raposo","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1604","DOI":"10.1182\/blood-2004-03-1095","article-title":"Tissue-factor-bearing microvesicles arise from lipid rafts and fuse with activated platelets to initiate coagulation","volume":"106","author":"Shrimpton","year":"2005","journal-title":"Blood"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wei, X., Liu, C., Wang, H., Wang, L., Xiao, F., Guo, Z., and Zhang, H. (2016). Surface Phosphatidylserine Is Responsible for the Internalization on Microvesicles Derived from Hypoxia-Induced Human Bone Marrow Mesenchymal Stem Cells into Human Endothelial Cells. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0147360"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-cellbio-101512-122326","article-title":"Biogenesis, secretion, and intercellular interactions of exosomes and other extracellular vesicles","volume":"30","author":"Colombo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2014.00442","article-title":"Tetraspanins in extracellular vesicle formation and function","volume":"5","author":"Andreu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20389","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v2i0.20389","article-title":"As we wait: Coping with an imperfect nomenclature for extracellular vesicles","volume":"2","author":"Gould","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20360","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v2i0.20360","article-title":"Standardization of sample collection, isolation and analysis methods in extracellular vesicle research","volume":"2","author":"Witwer","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-9814-2_17","article-title":"Isolation\/Analysis of Extracellular Microvesicles from HSV-1-Infected Cells","volume":"2060","year":"2020","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-7253-1_10","article-title":"Purification Protocols for Extracellular Vesicles","volume":"1660","author":"Lane","year":"2017","journal-title":"Methods Mol. Biol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1253","DOI":"10.1515\/hsz-2013-0141","article-title":"Current methods for the isolation of extracellular vesicles","volume":"394","author":"Balaj","year":"2013","journal-title":"Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8545347","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/8545347","article-title":"Isolation of Extracellular Vesicles: General Methodologies and Latest Trends","volume":"2018","author":"Konoshenko","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24641","DOI":"10.3402\/jev.v3.24641","article-title":"Routes and mechanisms of extracellular vesicle uptake","volume":"3","author":"Mulcahy","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Extracell. Vesicles"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2012.00228","article-title":"Role of exosomes\/microvesicles in the nervous system and use in emerging therapies","volume":"3","author":"Lai","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2016.04.016","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles: Interneural shuttles of complex messages","volume":"39","author":"Hill","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2016.00127","article-title":"Extracellular Vesicles and a Novel Form of Communication in the Brain","volume":"10","author":"Basso","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2018.03.006","article-title":"Extracellular Vesicles: Multimodal Envoys in Neural Maintenance and Repair","volume":"41","author":"Holm","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Minagar, A., and Alexander, J.S. (2017). Cell-Derived Microparticles\/Exosomes in Neuroinflammation. Inflammatory Disorders of the Nervous System: Pathogenesis, Immunology, and Clinical Management, Springer International Publishing."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"796","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.268893","article-title":"Exosomes as mediators of neuron-glia communication in neuroinflammation","volume":"15","author":"Pascual","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neural Regen. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"483","DOI":"10.3389\/fcell.2020.00483","article-title":"Exosome Circuitry During (De)(Re)Myelination of the Central Nervous System","volume":"8","author":"Domingues","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Cell Dev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-015-0269-4","article-title":"Environmental Enrichment Stimulates Immune Cell Secretion of Exosomes that Promote CNS Myelination and May Regulate Inflammation","volume":"36","author":"Pusic","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fruhbeis, C., Frohlich, D., Kuo, W.P., Amphornrat, J., Thilemann, S., Saab, A.S., Kirchhoff, F., Mobius, W., Goebbels, S., and Nave, K.A. (2013). Neurotransmitter-triggered transfer of exosomes mediates oligodendrocyte-neuron communication. PLoS Biol., 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.1001604"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1126\/science.298.5593.556","article-title":"New insights into neuron-glia communication","volume":"298","author":"Fields","year":"2002","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2017.02.002","article-title":"The role of exosomes in CNS inflammation and their involvement in multiple sclerosis","volume":"306","author":"Selmaj","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2012.00063","article-title":"Microvesicles: Novel biomarkers for neurological disorders","volume":"3","author":"Colombo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn.2015.29","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles round off communication in the nervous system","volume":"17","author":"Budnik","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2017.00276","article-title":"Extracellular Vesicles in Brain Tumors and Neurodegenerative Diseases","volume":"10","author":"Ciregia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Mol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7312","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1220998110","article-title":"Exosomes reflect the hypoxic status of glioma cells and mediate hypoxia-dependent activation of vascular cells during tumor development","volume":"110","author":"Kucharzewska","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11214","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3588-07.2007","article-title":"The heat shock response and chaperones\/heat shock proteins in brain tumors: Surface expression, release, and possible immune consequences","volume":"27","author":"Graner","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Off. J. Soc. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"1541","article-title":"Proteomic and immunologic analyses of brain tumor exosomes","volume":"23","author":"Graner","year":"2009","journal-title":"FASEB J. Off. Publ. Fed. Am. Soc. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1007\/s11060-016-2298-3","article-title":"Comprehensive proteome profiling of glioblastoma-derived extracellular vesicles identifies markers for more aggressive disease","volume":"131","author":"Mallawaaratchy","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neuro-Oncol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"240","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2019.00240","article-title":"Role of Exosomes in Central Nervous System Diseases","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Mol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1131","DOI":"10.5966\/sctm.2015-0078","article-title":"Extracellular Vesicles Improve Post-Stroke Neuroregeneration and Prevent Postischemic Immunosuppression","volume":"4","author":"Doeppner","year":"2015","journal-title":"Stem Cells Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44433","DOI":"10.1038\/srep44433","article-title":"White Matter Repair After Extracellular Vesicles Administration in an Experimental Animal Model of Subcortical Stroke","volume":"7","author":"Fuentes","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2017.00026","article-title":"Exosomes, an Unmasked Culprit in Neurodegenerative Diseases","volume":"11","author":"Soria","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1347","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2019.01347","article-title":"Exosome Production Is Key to Neuronal Endosomal Pathway Integrity in Neurodegenerative Diseases","volume":"13","author":"Mathews","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mam.2017.11.006","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles in neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"60","author":"Croese","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Asp. Med."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9269","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0147-18.2019","article-title":"Extracellular Vesicles and Neurodegenerative Diseases","volume":"39","author":"Hill","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Off. J. Soc. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104512","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2019.104512","article-title":"Emerging roles of extracellular vesicles in neurodegenerative disorders","volume":"130","author":"You","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kutchy, N.A., Peeples, E.S., Sil, S., Liao, K., Chivero, E.T., Hu, G., and Buch, S. (2020). Extracellular Vesicles in Viral Infections of the Nervous System. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12070700"},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"100","article-title":"Extracellular Vesicles in Multiple Sclerosis: What are They Telling Us?","volume":"8","author":"Otaegui","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Cell. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2018.00434","article-title":"Therapeutic Potential of Extracellular Vesicles for Demyelinating Diseases; Challenges and Opportunities","volume":"11","author":"Alberro","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Mol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-47861-6_1","article-title":"Extracellular Vesicles in Multiple Sclerosis as Possible Biomarkers: Dream or Reality?","volume":"958","author":"Barreca","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Exp. Med. Biol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2016.09.090","article-title":"The role of extracellular vesicles in neurodegenerative diseases","volume":"483","author":"Quek","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vella, L.J., Hill, A.F., and Cheng, L. (2016). Focus on Extracellular Vesicles: Exosomes and Their Role in Protein Trafficking and Biomarker Potential in Alzheimer\u2019s and Parkinson\u2019s Disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms17020173"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.3389\/fphys.2012.00124","article-title":"Exosomes: Vehicles for the transfer of toxic proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases?","volume":"3","author":"Bellingham","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3842","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M111.277061","article-title":"Exosome-associated tau is secreted in tauopathy models and is selectively phosphorylated in cerebrospinal fluid in early Alzheimer disease","volume":"287","author":"Saman","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11172","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0603838103","article-title":"Alzheimer\u2019s disease beta-amyloid peptides are released in association with exosomes","volume":"103","author":"Rajendran","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6838","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.5699-09.2010","article-title":"Cell-produced alpha-synuclein is secreted in a calcium-dependent manner by exosomes and impacts neuronal survival","volume":"30","author":"Emmanouilidou","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Off. J. Soc. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2007.09.024","article-title":"Evidence for secretion of Cu,Zn superoxide dismutase via exosomes from a cell model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis","volume":"428","author":"Gomes","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3620","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1312245111","article-title":"Intercellular propagated misfolding of wild-type Cu\/Zn superoxide dismutase occurs via exosome-dependent and -independent mechanisms","volume":"111","author":"Grad","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9683","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0308413101","article-title":"Cells release prions in association with exosomes","volume":"101","author":"Fevrier","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"787","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M110.190009","article-title":"Inhibition of myelin membrane sheath formation by oligodendrocyte-derived exosome-like vesicles","volume":"286","author":"Bakhti","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134915","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2020.134915","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles in the oligodendrocyte microenvironment","volume":"725","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1446","DOI":"10.1002\/prca.200700522","article-title":"Oligodendrocytes secrete exosomes containing major myelin and stress-protective proteins: Trophic support for axons?","volume":"1","author":"Bretz","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proteom. Clin. Appl."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20130510","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2013.0510","article-title":"Multifaceted effects of oligodendroglial exosomes on neurons: Impact on neuronal firing rate, signal transduction and gene regulation","volume":"369","author":"Frohlich","year":"2014","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_78","unstructured":"Kornienko, V.N., and Pronin, I.N. (2009). Demyelinating Diseases of the Central Nervous System. Diagnostic Neuroradiology, Springer."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hodler, J., Kubik-Huch, R.A., and von Schulthess, G.K. (2020). Demyelinating Diseases of the CNS (Brain and Spine). Diseases of the Brain, Head and Neck, Spine 2020\u20132023: Diagnostic Imaging, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-38490-6"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.3389\/fnmol.2015.00035","article-title":"Myelin damage and repair in pathologic CNS: Challenges and prospects","volume":"8","author":"Alizadeh","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Mol. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.4103\/0976-3147.127887","article-title":"Central and peripheral demyelination","volume":"5","author":"Mehndiratta","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Rural Pract."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-017-1739-1","article-title":"Leukodystrophies: A proposed classification system based on pathological changes and pathogenetic mechanisms","volume":"134","author":"Bugiani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.1136\/jcp.2005.031195","article-title":"Demyelinating diseases","volume":"59","author":"Love","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1038\/s41572-018-0041-4","article-title":"Multiple sclerosis","volume":"4","author":"Filippi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Dis. Primers"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"H\u00e4hnel, S. (2009). Multiple Sclerosis and Other Demyelinating Diseases. Inflammatory Diseases of the Brain, Springer Berlin Heidelberg.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-76660-5"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"899","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.00899","article-title":"Acute Hemorrhagic Leukoencephalitis: A Case and Systematic Review of the Literature","volume":"11","author":"Grzonka","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ferren, M., Horvat, B., and Mathieu, C. (2019). Measles Encephalitis: Towards New Therapeutics. Viruses, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/v11111017"},{"key":"ref_88","unstructured":"Rocke, Z., and Belyayeva, M. (2020). Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis. StatPearls, Statpearls Publishing."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"427","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03210848","article-title":"Murine coronavirus neuropathogenesis: Determinants of virulence","volume":"16","author":"Cowley","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neurovirol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/S1369-5274(00)00236-8","article-title":"Mouse hepatitis virus","volume":"4","author":"Haring","year":"2001","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1007\/s12026-007-0079-y","article-title":"Pathogenesis of acute and chronic central nervous system infection with variants of mouse hepatitis virus, strain JHM","volume":"39","author":"Templeton","year":"2007","journal-title":"Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11718","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms130911718","article-title":"Environmental risk factors for multiple sclerosis: A review with a focus on molecular mechanisms","volume":"13","author":"Lucas","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Mol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1111\/ane.12431","article-title":"Multiple sclerosis and environmental factors: The role of vitamin D, parasites, and Epstein-Barr virus infection","volume":"132","author":"Correale","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Neurol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3900","article-title":"Exploring the origins of grey matter damage in multiple sclerosis","volume":"16","author":"Calabrese","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100039","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtauto.2020.100039","article-title":"Immune-mediated genesis of multiple sclerosis","volume":"3","author":"Cavallo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Transl. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lewis, P.A., and Spillane, J.E. (2019). Multiple Sclerosis. The Molecular and Clinical Pathology of Neurodegenerative Disease, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-811069-0.00007-0"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.2174\/187152712801661220","article-title":"Viruses and multiple sclerosis","volume":"11","author":"Virtanen","year":"2012","journal-title":"Cns Neurol. Disord. Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Donati, D. (2020). Viral infections and multiple sclerosis. Drug Discov. Today. Dis. Models.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ddmod.2020.02.003"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tarlinton, R.E., Martynova, E., Rizvanov, A.A., Khaiboullina, S., and Verma, S. (2020). Role of Viruses in the Pathogenesis of Multiple Sclerosis. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12060643"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"452","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2015.10.010","article-title":"Molecular alterations of the blood-brain barrier under inflammatory conditions: The role of endothelial to mesenchymal transition","volume":"1862","author":"Kamermans","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biochim. Et Biophys. Acta"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"540","DOI":"10.1191\/1352458503ms965oa","article-title":"Blood-brain barrier disruption in multiple sclerosis","volume":"9","author":"Minagar","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mult Scler"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ulivieri, C., and Baldari, C.T. (2017). Regulation of T Cell Activation and Differentiation by Extracellular Vesicles and Their Pathogenic Role in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus and Multiple Sclerosis. Molecules, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules22020225"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1097\/WCO.0000000000000326","article-title":"Novel MRI and PET markers of neuroinflammation in multiple sclerosis","volume":"29","author":"Hagens","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2017.07.055","article-title":"Neuroimaging Techniques to Assess Inflammation in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"403","author":"Tommasin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-018-1294-2","article-title":"Inflammation-induced endothelial to mesenchymal transition promotes brain endothelial cell dysfunction and occurs during multiple sclerosis pathophysiology","volume":"10","author":"Fontijn","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"589","DOI":"10.1016\/S0074-7742(07)79026-8","article-title":"Remyelination in multiple sclerosis","volume":"79","author":"Chari","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-020-02189-9","article-title":"Lesion stage-dependent causes for impaired remyelination in MS","volume":"140","author":"Hess","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2015.00111","article-title":"Microvesicles: What is the Role in Multiple Sclerosis?","volume":"6","author":"Carandini","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pharmtox-010814-124630","article-title":"Therapeutic applications of extracellular vesicles: Clinical promise and open questions","volume":"55","author":"Gyorgy","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1761","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.accounts.9b00109","article-title":"Drug Delivery with Extracellular Vesicles: From Imagination to Innovation","volume":"52","author":"Kooijmans","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acc. Chem. Res."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-019-0223-5","article-title":"Extracellular vesicle-based therapeutics: Natural versus engineered targeting and trafficking","volume":"51","author":"Murphy","year":"2019","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1556","DOI":"10.1002\/stem.1129","article-title":"Exosome-mediated transfer of miR-133b from multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells to neural cells contributes to neurite outgrowth","volume":"30","author":"Xin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Stem Cells"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1769","DOI":"10.1038\/mt.2011.164","article-title":"Treatment of brain inflammatory diseases by delivering exosome encapsulated anti-inflammatory drugs from the nasal region to the brain","volume":"19","author":"Zhuang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Ther. J. Am. Soc. Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt.1807","article-title":"Delivery of siRNA to the mouse brain by systemic injection of targeted exosomes","volume":"29","author":"Seow","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"620","DOI":"10.1038\/339620a0","article-title":"Vesicular removal by oligodendrocytes of membrane attack complexes formed by activated complement","volume":"339","author":"Scolding","year":"1989","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1319","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.56.10.1319","article-title":"Elevated plasma endothelial microparticles in multiple sclerosis","volume":"56","author":"Minagar","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3137","DOI":"10.2741\/1466","article-title":"Endothelial microparticles (EMP) bind and activate monocytes: Elevated EMP-monocyte conjugates in multiple sclerosis","volume":"9","author":"Jy","year":"2004","journal-title":"Front. Biosci. A J. Virtual Libr."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1191\/1352458505ms1184oa","article-title":"Elevated endothelial microparticle-monocyte complexes induced by multiple sclerosis plasma and the inhibitory effects of interferon-beta 1b on release of endothelial microparticles, formation and transendothelial migration of monocyte-endothelial microparticle complexes","volume":"11","author":"Jimenez","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mult Scler"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2019.00711","article-title":"PECAM-1 Stabilizes Blood-Brain Barrier Integrity and Favors Paracellular T-Cell Diapedesis Across the Blood-Brain Barrier During Neuroinflammation","volume":"10","author":"Wimmer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-5728(99)00092-2","article-title":"Increased serum levels of soluble PECAM-1 in multiple sclerosis patients with brain gadolinium-enhancing lesions","volume":"99","author":"Losy","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2005.06.019","article-title":"Plasma levels of soluble adhesion molecules sPECAM-1, sP-selectin and sE-selectin are associated with relapsing-remitting disease course of multiple sclerosis","volume":"167","author":"Kuenz","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_122","first-page":"143","article-title":"Pecam-1 expression in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis","volume":"61","author":"Niezgoda","year":"2002","journal-title":"Folia Morphol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.23627","article-title":"Myeloid microvesicles are a marker and therapeutic target for neuroinflammation","volume":"72","author":"Verderio","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marcos-Ramiro, B., Oliva Nacarino, P., Serrano-Pertierra, E., Blanco-Gelaz, M.A., Weksler, B.B., Romero, I.A., Couraud, P.O., Tunon, A., Lopez-Larrea, C., and Millan, J. (2014). Microparticles in multiple sclerosis and clinically isolated syndrome: Effect on endothelial barrier function. BMC Neurosci., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2202-15-110"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"585","DOI":"10.1038\/s41580-020-0251-y","article-title":"RNA delivery by extracellular vesicles in mammalian cells and its applications","volume":"21","author":"Breyne","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14293","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-14301-3","article-title":"Exosomal microRNA signatures in multiple sclerosis reflect disease status","volume":"7","author":"Ebrahimkhani","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.24931","article-title":"Global exosome transcriptome profiling reveals biomarkers for multiple sclerosis","volume":"81","author":"Selmaj","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1256","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.01256","article-title":"Dysregulated MicroRNA Involvement in Multiple Sclerosis by Induction of T Helper 17 Cell Differentiation","volume":"9","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2016.00129","article-title":"Is It worth Considering Circulating microRNAs in Multiple Sclerosis?","volume":"7","author":"Jagot","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2018.05.050","article-title":"Dysregulated Network of miRNAs Involved in the Pathogenesis of Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"104","author":"Dolati","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biomed. Pharmacother."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3342","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awp300","article-title":"MicroRNA profiling of multiple sclerosis lesions identifies modulators of the regulatory protein CD47","volume":"132","author":"Junker","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain A J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2013.09.019","article-title":"MicroRNA-155 modulates Th1 and Th17 cell differentiation and is associated with multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis","volume":"266","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20050304","article-title":"IgG marker of optic-spinal multiple sclerosis binds to the aquaporin-4 water channel","volume":"202","author":"Lennon","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2016.09.001","article-title":"Exosomal proteome analysis of cerebrospinal fluid detects biosignatures of neuromyelitis optica and multiple sclerosis","volume":"462","author":"Lee","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. Chim. Acta Int. J. Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1186\/s13256-018-1929-z","article-title":"Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder with increased aquaporin-4 microparticles prior to autoantibodies in cerebrospinal fluid: A case report","volume":"13","author":"Bejerot","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Med Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adiele, R., and Adiele, C. (2014). Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy. J. Mult Scler., 1.","DOI":"10.4172\/jmso.1000118"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(71)91777-6","article-title":"Cultivation of papova-like virus from human brain with progressive multifocal leucoencephalopathy","volume":"1","author":"Padgett","year":"1971","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santiana, M., and Altan-Bonnet, N. (2019). Insane in the Membrane: Glial Extracellular Vesicles Transmit Polyomaviruses. mBio, 10.","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01024-19"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1186\/s12981-020-00293-0","article-title":"JC Polyomavirus, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy and immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome: A review","volume":"17","author":"Harypursat","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aids Res. Ther."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00138","article-title":"Understanding Progressive Multifocal Leukoencephalopathy Risk in Multiple Sclerosis Patients Treated with Immunomodulatory Therapies: A Bird\u2019s Eye View","volume":"9","author":"Mills","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2010.09.004","article-title":"Structure-function analysis of the human JC polyomavirus establishes the LSTc pentasaccharide as a functional receptor motif","volume":"8","author":"Neu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13490","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02252-13","article-title":"5-HT2 receptors facilitate JC polyomavirus entry","volume":"87","author":"Assetta","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morris-Love, J., Gee, G.V., O\u2019Hara, B.A., Assetta, B., Atkinson, A.L., Dugan, A.S., Haley, S.A., and Atwood, W.J. (2019). JC Polyomavirus Uses Extracellular Vesicles To Infect Target Cells. mBio, 10.","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00379-19"},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Hara, B.A., Morris-Love, J., Gee, G.V., Haley, S.A., and Atwood, W.J. (2020). JC Virus infected choroid plexus epithelial cells produce extracellular vesicles that infect glial cells independently of the virus attachment receptor. Plos Pathog., 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1008371"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"789","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neurol.2009.07.004","article-title":"Chronic viral infections of the central nervous system: Aspects specific to multiple sclerosis","volume":"165","author":"Giraudon","year":"2009","journal-title":"Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_146","first-page":"60","article-title":"Herpesvirus and multiple sclerosis","volume":"8","author":"Simmons","year":"2001","journal-title":"Herpes J. IHMF"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bello-Morales, R., Andreu, S., and Lopez-Guerrero, J.A. (2020). The Role of Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 Infection in Demyelination of the Central Nervous System. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21145026"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-010-0940-0","article-title":"Relation between Epstein-Barr virus and multiple sclerosis: Analytic study of scientific production","volume":"29","author":"Santiago","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. Off. Publ. Eur. Soc. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmed.2019.11.003","article-title":"Epstein\u2013Barr Virus in Multiple Sclerosis: Theory and Emerging Immunotherapies","volume":"26","author":"Pender","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2850","DOI":"10.1002\/jcp.26000","article-title":"Relationship of human herpes virus 6 and multiple sclerosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"233","author":"Pormohammad","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Cell. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_151","first-page":"4","article-title":"Human herpesvirus 6 and multiple sclerosis: Potential mechanisms for virus-induced disease","volume":"12","author":"Fotheringham","year":"2005","journal-title":"Herpes J. IHMF"},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"891","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458518823940","article-title":"The role of infections in multiple sclerosis","volume":"25","author":"Marrodan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mult Scler"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.4065\/mcp.2010.0350","article-title":"Human herpesvirus 6 infection as a trigger of multiple sclerosis","volume":"85","author":"Voumvourakis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.4103\/1673-5374.245462","article-title":"The role of Epstein-Barr virus in multiple sclerosis: From molecular pathophysiology to in vivo imaging","volume":"14","author":"Guan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neural Regen. Res."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458513490545","article-title":"Oligoclonal bands in multiple sclerosis reactive against two herpesviruses and association with magnetic resonance imaging findings","volume":"20","author":"Virtanen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"569","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410090610","article-title":"Viral antibody activity of oligoclonal and polyclonal immunoglobulins synthesized within the central nervous system in multiple sclerosis","volume":"9","author":"Rostrom","year":"1981","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2011.06.012","article-title":"Intrathecal human herpesvirus 6 antibodies in multiple sclerosis and other demyelinating diseases presenting as oligoclonal bands in cerebrospinal fluid","volume":"237","author":"Virtanen","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bello-Morales, R., Ripa, I., and Lopez-Guerrero, J.A. (2020). Extracellular Vesicles in Viral Spread and Antiviral Response. Viruses, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/v12060623"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"E4991","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1419338111","article-title":"Cells infected with herpes simplex virus 1 export to uninfected cells exosomes containing STING, viral mRNAs, and microRNAs","volume":"111","author":"Kalamvoki","year":"2014","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1186\/s12985-016-0518-2","article-title":"Extracellular vesicles during Herpes Simplex Virus type 1 infection: An inquire","volume":"13","author":"Kalamvoki","year":"2016","journal-title":"Virol. J."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bello-Morales, R., Praena, B., de la Nuez, C., Rejas, M.T., Guerra, M., Galan-Ganga, M., Izquierdo, M., Calvo, V., Krummenacher, C., and Lopez-Guerrero, J.A. (2018). Role of Microvesicles in the Spread of Herpes Simplex Virus 1 in Oligodendrocytic Cells. J. Virol., 92.","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00088-18"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morandi, E., Tanasescu, R., Tarlinton, R.E., Constantinescu, C.S., Zhang, W., Tench, C., and Gran, B. (2017). The association between human endogenous retroviruses and multiple sclerosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0172415"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1002\/rmv.465","article-title":"Association of human endogenous retroviruses with multiple sclerosis and possible interactions with herpes viruses","volume":"15","author":"Christensen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Rev. Med Virol."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1111\/ane.12836","article-title":"Human endogenous retroviruses in the aetiology of MS","volume":"136","author":"Christensen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Neurol. Scand."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458507086425","article-title":"Herpesviruses and human endogenous retroviral sequences in the cerebrospinal fluid of multiple sclerosis patients","volume":"14","author":"Bartolome","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_166","first-page":"132","article-title":"Enrichment of Retroviral Sequences in Brain Tissue from Patients with Severe Demyelinating Diseases","volume":"3","author":"Kriesel","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Emerg. Dis. Virol."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7583","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.94.14.7583","article-title":"Molecular identification of a novel retrovirus repeatedly isolated from patients with multiple sclerosis. The Collaborative Research Group on Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"94","author":"Perron","year":"1997","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1248","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458510376956","article-title":"Multiple sclerosis-associated retrovirus and progressive disability of multiple sclerosis","volume":"16","author":"Sotgiu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1038\/s41579-019-0189-2","article-title":"Origins and evolutionary consequences of ancient endogenous retroviruses","volume":"17","author":"Johnson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1038\/35001608","article-title":"Syncytin is a captive retroviral envelope protein involved in human placental morphogenesis","volume":"403","author":"Mi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2018.00422","article-title":"Human Endogenous Retroviral Envelope Protein Syncytin-1 and Inflammatory Abnormalities in Neuropsychological Diseases","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.23970","article-title":"Human endogenous retrovirus type W envelope protein inhibits oligodendroglial precursor cell differentiation","volume":"74","author":"Kremer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1080\/13550280600614973","article-title":"Regulation of human endogenous retrovirus W protein expression by herpes simplex virus type 1: Implications for multiple sclerosis","volume":"12","author":"Ruprecht","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Neurovirol."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17637","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-54178-y","article-title":"Syncytin 1 dependent horizontal transfer of marker genes from retrovirally transduced cells","volume":"9","author":"Uygur","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_175","first-page":"3703","article-title":"Syncytin proteins incorporated in placenta exosomes are important for cell uptake and show variation in abundance in serum exosomes from patients with preeclampsia","volume":"28","author":"Vargas","year":"2014","journal-title":"FASEB J. Off. Publ. Fed. Am. Soc. Exp. Biol."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/21\/23\/9111\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T10:39:48Z","timestamp":1760179188000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/21\/23\/9111"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,30]]},"references-count":175,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms21239111"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms21239111","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1422-0067"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,11,30]]}}}