{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]],"date-time":"2026-06-19T08:35:31Z","timestamp":1781858131654,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":129,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,30]],"date-time":"2021-03-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1617062400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The liver is well recognized as a non-immunological visceral organ that is involved in various metabolic activities, nutrient storage, and detoxification. Recently, many studies have demonstrated that resident immune cells in the liver drive various immunological reactions by means of several molecular modulators. Understanding the mechanistic details of interactions between hepatic host immune cells, including Kupffer cells and lymphocytes, and various hepatic pathogens, especially viruses, bacteria, and parasites, is necessary. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), over 2600 of which have been discovered, are small, endogenous, interfering, noncoding RNAs that are predicted to regulate more than 15,000 genes by degrading specific messenger RNAs. Several recent studies have demonstrated that some miRNAs are associated with the immune response to pathogens in the liver. However, the details of the underlying mechanisms of miRNA interference in hepatic host\u2013pathogen interactions still remain elusive. In this review, we summarize the relationship between the immunological interactions of various pathogens and hepatic resident immune cells, as well as the role of miRNAs in the maintenance of liver immunity against pathogens.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22073554","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,30]],"date-time":"2021-03-30T03:29:45Z","timestamp":1617074985000},"page":"3554","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["MicroRNA Interference in Hepatic Host-Pathogen Interactions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0760-3045","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Asahiro","family":"Morishita","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Kagawa University School of Medicine, Kagawa 761-0793, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9531-7240","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kyoko","family":"Oura","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Kagawa University School of Medicine, Kagawa 761-0793, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tomoko","family":"Tadokoro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Kagawa University School of Medicine, Kagawa 761-0793, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9390-7565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Koji","family":"Fujita","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Kagawa University School of Medicine, Kagawa 761-0793, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8801-2505","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joji","family":"Tani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Kagawa University School of Medicine, Kagawa 761-0793, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tsutomu","family":"Masaki","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Gastroenterology and Neurology, Kagawa University School of Medicine, Kagawa 761-0793, Japan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.immunol.021908.132629","article-title":"The liver as a lymphoid organ","volume":"27","author":"Crispe","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1007\/s00281-009-0173-4","article-title":"Microanatomy of the liver immune system","volume":"31","author":"Nemeth","year":"2009","journal-title":"Semin. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5699(99)01518-2","article-title":"Prometheus through the looking glass: Reflections on the hepatic immune system","volume":"20","author":"Crispe","year":"1999","journal-title":"Immunol. Today"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1038\/cmi.2016.3","article-title":"Liver immunology and its role in inflammation and homeostasis","volume":"13","author":"Robinson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-5699(92)90198-G","article-title":"The immune system evolved to discriminate infectious nonself from noninfectious self","volume":"13","author":"Janeway","year":"1992","journal-title":"Immunol. Today"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2010.01.022","article-title":"Pattern recognition receptors and inflammation","volume":"140","author":"Takeuchi","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1158","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2012.09.008","article-title":"Sterile inflammation in the liver","volume":"143","author":"Kubes","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1177\/019262339602400114","article-title":"Structure and function of sinusoidal lining cells in the liver","volume":"24","author":"Wisse","year":"1996","journal-title":"Toxicol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jhep.2013.08.007","article-title":"CD141(+) myeloid dendritic cells are enriched in healthy human liver","volume":"60","author":"Kelly","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2314","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.163.4.2314","article-title":"The human liver contains multiple populations of NK cells, T cells, and CD3+CD56+ natural T cells with distinct cytotoxic activities and Th1, Th2, and Th0 cytokine secretion patterns","volume":"163","author":"Doherty","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-8278(98)80206-7","article-title":"Resident human hepatic lymphocytes are phenotypically different from circulating lymphocytes","volume":"28","author":"Norris","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"D296","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gkx1067","article-title":"miRTarBase update 2018: A resource for experimentally validated microRNA-target interactions","volume":"46","author":"Chou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/S0092-8674(04)00045-5","article-title":"MicroRNAs: Genomics, biogenesis, mechanism, and function","volume":"116","author":"Bartel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1038\/ng1536","article-title":"Combinatorial microRNA target predictions","volume":"37","author":"Krek","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2012.04.007","article-title":"MicroRNAs in liver disease","volume":"142","author":"Wang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1038\/nrm2632","article-title":"Biogenesis of small RNAs in animals","volume":"10","author":"Kim","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1038\/nature03120","article-title":"The Microprocessor complex mediates the genesis of microRNAs","volume":"432","author":"Gregory","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1178705","article-title":"A high-resolution structure of the pre-microRNA nuclear export machinery","volume":"326","author":"Okada","year":"2009","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740","DOI":"10.1038\/nature03868","article-title":"TRBP recruits the Dicer complex to Ago2 for microRNA processing and gene silencing","volume":"436","author":"Chendrimada","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molcel.2012.05.012","article-title":"MicroRNA factory: RISC assembly from precursor microRNAs","volume":"46","author":"Kim","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2109","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.27254","article-title":"Immune tolerance in liver disease","volume":"60","author":"Crispe","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"753","DOI":"10.1038\/nri2858","article-title":"Antigen-presenting cell function in the tolerogenic liver environment","volume":"10","author":"Thomson","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"142","DOI":"10.1124\/pr.114.010090","article-title":"Toll-like Receptors in the Vascular System: Sensing the Dangers Within","volume":"68","author":"Goulopoulou","year":"2016","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1038\/90609","article-title":"Toll-like receptors: Critical proteins linking innate and acquired immunity","volume":"2","author":"Akira","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2011.05.006","article-title":"Toll-like receptors and their crosstalk with other innate receptors in infection and immunity","volume":"34","author":"Kawai","year":"2011","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2482","DOI":"10.1002\/eji.201141740","article-title":"MicroRNAs and the resolution phase of inflammation in macrophages","volume":"41","author":"Alam","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2009.01.002","article-title":"MicroRNAs: Target recognition and regulatory functions","volume":"136","author":"Bartel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Acevedo, N., Alashkar Alhamwe, B., Caraballo, L., Ding, M., Ferrante, A., Garn, H., Garssen, J., Hii, C.S., Irvine, J., and Llinas-Caballero, K. (2021). Perinatal and Early-Life Nutrition, Epigenetics, and Allergy. Nutrients, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu13030724"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00756","article-title":"IgE Levels to Ascaris and House Dust Mite Allergens Are Associated With Increased Histone Acetylation at Key Type-2 Immune Genes","volume":"11","author":"Zakzuk","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1125","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06607","article-title":"Regulation of progenitor cell proliferation and granulocyte function by microRNA-223","volume":"451","author":"Johnnidis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2735","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0811073106","article-title":"MicroRNA-155 modulates the interleukin-1 signaling pathway in activated human monocyte-derived dendritic cells","volume":"106","author":"Ceppi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbspin.2010.06.003","article-title":"MicroRNAs as new player in rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"78","author":"Presumey","year":"2011","journal-title":"Joint Bone Spine"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2010.02.005","article-title":"The role of microRNA in rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune diseases","volume":"136","author":"Furer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2007.03.008","article-title":"miR-181a is an intrinsic modulator of T cell sensitivity and selection","volume":"129","author":"Li","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2008.11.010","article-title":"Foxp3-dependent microRNA155 confers competitive fitness to regulatory T cells by targeting SOCS1 protein","volume":"30","author":"Lu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1002\/jcb.20982","article-title":"Downregulation of miR-122 in the rodent and human hepatocellular carcinomas","volume":"99","author":"Kutay","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Cell Biochem."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1113329","article-title":"Modulation of hepatitis C virus RNA abundance by a liver-specific MicroRNA","volume":"309","author":"Jopling","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, H., Xu, S.J., Xie, S.J., Zhang, Y., Yang, J.H., Zhang, W.Q., Zheng, M.N., Zhou, H., and Qu, L.H. (2019). MicroRNA-122 supports robust innate immunity in hepatocytes by targeting the RTKs\/STAT3 signaling pathway. eLife, 8.","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.41159"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2010.09.009","article-title":"MicroRNA-155 promotes autoimmune inflammation by enhancing inflammatory T cell development","volume":"33","author":"Kahn","year":"2010","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23237","DOI":"10.1038\/srep23237","article-title":"Mutual antagonism between hepatitis B viral mRNA and host microRNA let-7","volume":"6","author":"Takata","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bandopadhyay, M., Banerjee, A., Sarkar, N., Panigrahi, R., Datta, S., Pal, A., Singh, S.P., Biswas, A., Chakrabarti, S., and Chakravarty, R. (2014). Tumor suppressor micro RNA miR-145 and onco micro RNAs miR-21 and miR-222 expressions are differentially modulated by hepatitis B virus X protein in malignant hepatocytes. BMC Cancer, 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2407-14-721"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3296","DOI":"10.1038\/onc.2013.150","article-title":"HBx-mediated miR-21 upregulation represses tumor-suppressor function of PDCD4 in hepatocellular carcinoma","volume":"32","author":"Qiu","year":"2013","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.antiviral.2015.03.001","article-title":"Down-regulation of suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 by miR-122 enhances interferon-mediated suppression of hepatitis B virus","volume":"118","author":"Gao","year":"2015","journal-title":"Antiviral. Res."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"808","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.24441","article-title":"MicroRNAs-372\/373 promote the expression of hepatitis B virus through the targeting of nuclear factor I\/B","volume":"54","author":"Guo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, Y., Chen, J., Wang, H., Shi, J., Wu, K., Liu, S., Liu, Y., and Wu, J. (2013). HCV-induced miR-21 contributes to evasion of host immune system by targeting MyD88 and IRAK1. PLoS Pathog., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003248"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4838","DOI":"10.1038\/emboj.2011.351","article-title":"PKC alpha regulates Sendai virus-mediated interferon induction through HDAC6 and beta-catenin","volume":"30","author":"Zhu","year":"2011","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3029","DOI":"10.1128\/MCB.00344-15","article-title":"Fine-Tuning of the RIG-I-Like Receptor\/Interferon Regulatory Factor 3-Dependent Antiviral Innate Immune Response by the Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3\/beta-Catenin Pathway","volume":"35","author":"Khan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4354","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v22.i17.4354","article-title":"Inhibitory effect of miR-125b on hepatitis C virus core protein-induced TLR2\/MyD88 signaling in THP-1 cells","volume":"22","author":"Peng","year":"2016","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1111\/jvh.12131","article-title":"MicroRNA-130a inhibits HCV replication by restoring the innate immune response","volume":"21","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Viral. Hepat."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10221","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00882-12","article-title":"Hepatitis C virus infection modulates expression of interferon stimulatory gene IFITM1 by upregulating miR-130A","volume":"86","author":"Shrivastava","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1007\/s10096-016-2851-1","article-title":"The impact of chronic hepatitis C infection on cholesterol metabolism in PBMCs is associated with microRNA-146a expression","volume":"36","author":"Sidorkiewicz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1186\/1479-5876-10-151","article-title":"Increased microRNA-155 expression in the serum and peripheral monocytes in chronic HCV infection","volume":"10","author":"Bala","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1111\/jvh.12126","article-title":"MicroRNA-155 controls Toll-like receptor 3- and hepatitis C virus-induced immune responses in the liver","volume":"21","author":"Jiang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Viral. Hepat."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1631","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.25849","article-title":"Hepatitis C virus-induced up-regulation of microRNA-155 promotes hepatocarcinogenesis by activating Wnt signaling","volume":"56","author":"Zhang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1494","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.23401","article-title":"MicroRNA-196 represses Bach1 protein and hepatitis C virus gene expression in human hepatoma cells expressing hepatitis C viral proteins","volume":"51","author":"Hou","year":"2010","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3356","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.03085-14","article-title":"Hepatitis C virus-mediated enhancement of microRNA miR-373 impairs the JAK\/STAT signaling pathway","volume":"89","author":"Mukherjee","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2017.08.002","article-title":"Host and pathogen interface: microRNAs are modulators of disease outcome","volume":"20","author":"Eledge","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Igietseme, J.U., Omosun, Y., Stuchlik, O., Reed, M.S., Partin, J., He, Q., Joseph, K., Ellerson, D., Bollweg, B., and George, Z. (2015). Role of Epithelial-Mesenchyme Transition in Chlamydia Pathogenesis. PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0145198"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Waidmann, O., Koberle, V., Brunner, F., Zeuzem, S., Piiper, A., and Kronenberger, B. (2012). Serum microRNA-122 predicts survival in patients with liver cirrhosis. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0045652"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1089\/gtmb.2019.0003","article-title":"Genetic Polymorphisms of miR-149 Associated with Susceptibility to Both Pulmonary and Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis","volume":"23","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Genet. Test. Mol. Biomark."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"40556","DOI":"10.1038\/srep40556","article-title":"MicroRNA-155 is upregulated in ascites in patients with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis","volume":"7","author":"Lutz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1064","DOI":"10.1097\/MEG.0000000000001443","article-title":"Serum CD64 and ascitic fluid calprotectin and microRNA-155 as potential biomarkers of spontaneous bacterial peritonitis","volume":"31","author":"Nabiel","year":"2019","journal-title":"Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64726","DOI":"10.18632\/oncotarget.11461","article-title":"Antigen specific immune response in Chlamydia muridarum genital infection is dependent on murine microRNAs-155 and -182","volume":"7","author":"Gupta","year":"2016","journal-title":"Oncotarget"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.12470","article-title":"Murine MicroRNA-214 regulates intracellular adhesion molecule (ICAM1) gene expression in genital Chlamydia muridarum infection","volume":"145","author":"Arkatkar","year":"2015","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31918","DOI":"10.1038\/srep31918","article-title":"The modulation of MiR-155 and MiR-23a manipulates Klebsiella pneumoniae Adhesion on Human pulmonary Epithelial cells via Integrin alpha5beta1 Signaling","volume":"6","author":"Teng","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4447","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-014-4127-y","article-title":"Induction of cancer-related microRNA expression profiling using excretory-secretory products of Clonorchis sinensis","volume":"113","author":"Pak","year":"2014","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"378","article-title":"Schistosomal MicroRNAs Isolated From Extracellular Vesicles in Sera of Infected Patients: A New Tool for Diagnosis and Follow-up of Human Schistosomiasis","volume":"215","author":"Meningher","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2017.05.007","article-title":"Evidence for an important role of host microRNAs in regulating hepatic fibrosis in humans infected with Schistosoma japonicum","volume":"47","author":"Cabantous","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-016-1562-x","article-title":"Hydatid cyst fluid promotes peri-cystic fibrosis in cystic echinococcosis by suppressing miR-19 expression","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Parasit Vectors"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e17156","DOI":"10.1097\/MD.0000000000017156","article-title":"Screening for microRNA-based diagnostic markers in hepatic alveolar echinococcosis","volume":"98","author":"Ren","year":"2019","journal-title":"Medicine"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.21802","article-title":"Nuclear factor-kappaB and the hepatic inflammation-fibrosis-cancer axis","volume":"46","author":"Elsharkawy","year":"2007","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7312","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v20.i23.7312","article-title":"Pathogenesis of liver cirrhosis","volume":"20","author":"Zhou","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20072195","article-title":"TLR-dependent cross talk between human Kupffer cells and NK cells","volume":"205","author":"Tu","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20061287","article-title":"Cytokines induced during chronic hepatitis B virus infection promote a pathway for NK cell-mediated liver damage","volume":"204","author":"Dunn","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1038\/nri3169","article-title":"Living in the liver: Hepatic infections","volume":"12","author":"Protzer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2010.12.008","article-title":"NF-kappaB, inflammation, and metabolic disease","volume":"13","author":"Baker","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell. Metab."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1007\/s12016-008-8091-0","article-title":"Inflammatory pathways in liver homeostasis and liver injury","volume":"36","author":"Tacke","year":"2009","journal-title":"Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1038\/cr.2010.183","article-title":"NF-kappaB and STAT3-key players in liver inflammation and cancer","volume":"21","author":"He","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell. Res."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5645","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02655-12","article-title":"Human microRNA hsa-miR-296-5p suppresses enterovirus 71 replication by targeting the viral genome","volume":"87","author":"Zheng","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micinf.2014.08.011","article-title":"miR-223 inhibits dengue virus replication by negatively regulating the microtubule-destabilizing protein STMN1 in EAhy926 cells","volume":"16","author":"Wu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2388","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02608-15","article-title":"Human MicroRNA miR-532-5p Exhibits Antiviral Activity against West Nile Virus via Suppression of Host Genes SESTD1 and TAB3 Required for Virus Replication","volume":"90","author":"Slonchak","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ho, B.C., Yang, P.C., and Yu, S.L. (2016). MicroRNA and Pathogenesis of Enterovirus Infection. Viruses, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/v8010011"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2014.12.014","article-title":"miR-122 stimulates hepatitis C virus RNA synthesis by altering the balance of viral RNAs engaged in replication versus translation","volume":"17","author":"Masaki","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell. Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2016.02.007","article-title":"A Broad RNA Virus Survey Reveals Both miRNA Dependence and Functional Sequestration","volume":"19","author":"Scheel","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cell. Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"824","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.00824","article-title":"Viruses and miRNAs: More Friends than Foes","volume":"8","author":"Bruscella","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-015-0249-0","article-title":"miR-146a suppresses cellular immune response during Japanese encephalitis virus JaOArS982 strain infection in human microglial cells","volume":"12","author":"Sharma","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1098","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.22749","article-title":"Differential microRNA expression between hepatitis B and hepatitis C leading disease progression to hepatocellular carcinoma","volume":"49","author":"Ura","year":"2009","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"137","DOI":"10.4161\/rna.18827","article-title":"Liver-specific microRNA-122: Biogenesis and function","volume":"9","author":"Jopling","year":"2012","journal-title":"RNA Biol."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4511","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.11-187781","article-title":"A liver-specific microRNA binds to a highly conserved RNA sequence of hepatitis B virus and negatively regulates viral gene expression and replication","volume":"25","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, S.C., Lin, X.L., Li, J., Zhang, T.T., Wang, H.Y., Shi, J.W., Yang, S., Zhao, W.T., Xie, R.Y., and Wei, F. (2014). MicroRNA-122 triggers mesenchymal-epithelial transition and suppresses hepatocellular carcinoma cell motility and invasion by targeting RhoA. PLoS ONE, 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0101330"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7197","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v20.i23.7197","article-title":"Regulation of microRNA by hepatitis B virus infection and their possible association with control of innate immunity","volume":"20","author":"Jiang","year":"2014","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2560","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejca.2014.07.008","article-title":"Hepatitis B virus X protein promotes hepatocellular carcinoma transformation through interleukin-6 activation of microRNA-21 expression","volume":"50","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Eur J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1111\/imm.12463","article-title":"MicroRNA-155 regulates interferon-gamma production in natural killer cells via Tim-3 signalling in chronic hepatitis C virus infection","volume":"145","author":"Cheng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Immunology"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.3892\/mmr.2015.3386","article-title":"Circulating microRNA-196a as a candidate diagnostic biomarker for chronic hepatitis C","volume":"12","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1038\/nature06205","article-title":"Interferon modulation of cellular microRNAs as an antiviral mechanism","volume":"449","author":"Pedersen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1038\/nri.2017.136","article-title":"Peptidoglycan recognition by the innate immune system","volume":"18","author":"Wolf","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1038\/cmi.2011.26","article-title":"MicroRNA in TLR signaling and endotoxin tolerance","volume":"8","author":"Nahid","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"1067","article-title":"[Pyogenic liver abscess: Changes of Organisms and Consequences for Diagnosis and Therapy]","volume":"142","author":"Mischnik","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hpb.2016.09.001","article-title":"Pyogenic liver abscess: Current status and predictive factors for recurrence and mortality of first episodes","volume":"18","author":"Czerwonko","year":"2016","journal-title":"HPB"},{"key":"ref_100","unstructured":"Akhondi, H., and Sabih, D.E. (2020). Liver Abscess. StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing LLC."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dell\u2019Annunziata, F., Ilisso, C.P., Dell\u2019Aversana, C., Greco, G., Coppola, A., Martora, F., Dal Piaz, F., Donadio, G., Falanga, A., and Galdiero, M. (2020). Outer Membrane Vesicles Derived from Klebsiella pneumoniae Influence the miRNA Expression Profile in Human Bronchial Epithelial BEAS-2B Cells. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8121985"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1136","DOI":"10.4254\/wjh.v12.i12.1136","article-title":"Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis due to carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae: Etiology and antibiotic treatment","volume":"12","author":"Fiore","year":"2020","journal-title":"World J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"632","DOI":"10.1002\/hep.1840080332","article-title":"Patients with deficient ascitic fluid opsonic activity are predisposed to spontaneous bacterial peritonitis","volume":"8","author":"Runyon","year":"1988","journal-title":"Hepatology"},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1080\/17474124.2019.1621167","article-title":"Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis caused by Gram-negative bacteria: An update of epidemiology and antimicrobial treatments","volume":"13","author":"Fiore","year":"2019","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1166","DOI":"10.4254\/wjh.v9.i30.1166","article-title":"Current concepts and future strategies in the antimicrobial therapy of emerging Gram-positive spontaneous bacterial peritonitis","volume":"9","author":"Fiore","year":"2017","journal-title":"World J. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1002\/cncy.21966","article-title":"Expression of microRNAs in the ascites of patients with peritoneal carcinomatosis and peritonitis","volume":"126","author":"Schindler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cancer Cytopathol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shikino, K., and Ikusaka, M. (2019). Fitz-Hugh-Curtis syndrome. BMJ Case Rep., 12.","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2019-229326"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e611","DOI":"10.1016\/j.amjmed.2020.04.007","article-title":"Fitz-Hugh-Curtis and Peritonitis: Sorting Through the Features that Define This Syndrome","volume":"133","author":"Yale","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hickey, A.J., Gounder, L., Moosa, M.Y., and Drain, P.K. (2015). A systematic review of hepatic tuberculosis with considerations in human immunodeficiency virus co-infection. BMC Infect. Dis., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-015-0944-6"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2253","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(13)61949-2","article-title":"Human schistosomiasis","volume":"383","author":"Colley","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1007\/s13205-020-02498-6","article-title":"Human microRNAs in host-parasite interaction: A review","volume":"10","author":"Paul","year":"2020","journal-title":"3 Biotech."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cai, P., Piao, X., Liu, S., Hou, N., Wang, H., and Chen, Q. (2013). MicroRNA-gene expression network in murine liver during Schistosoma japonicum infection. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0067037"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cai, P., Gobert, G.N., You, H., Duke, M., and McManus, D.P. (2015). Circulating miRNAs: Potential Novel Biomarkers for Hepatopathology Progression and Diagnosis of Schistosomiasis Japonica in Two Murine Models. PLoS Negl. Trop Dis., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0003965"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoy, A.M., Lundie, R.J., Ivens, A., Quintana, J.F., Nausch, N., Forster, T., Jones, F., Kabatereine, N.B., Dunne, D.W., and Mutapi, F. (2014). Parasite-derived microRNAs in host serum as novel biomarkers of helminth infection. PLoS Negl. Trop Dis., 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0002701"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1186\/s40249-016-0166-1","article-title":"Current status and perspectives of Clonorchis sinensis and clonorchiasis: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, omics, prevention and control","volume":"5","author":"Tang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Infect. Dis. Poverty"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1507","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1110.050614","article-title":"Emerging foodborne trematodiasis","volume":"11","author":"Keiser","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, M.J., Liu, Q., Nisbet, A.J., Cai, X.Q., Yan, C., Lin, R.Q., Yuan, Z.G., Song, H.Q., He, X.H., and Zhu, X.Q. (2010). Identification and characterization of microRNAs in Clonorchis sinensis of human health significance. BMC Genom., 11.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2164-11-521"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Han, S., Tang, Q., Lu, X., Chen, R., Li, Y., Shu, J., Zhang, X., and Cao, J. (2016). Dysregulation of hepatic microRNA expression profiles with Clonorchis sinensis infection. BMC Infect. Dis., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12879-016-2058-1"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1714","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yexcr.2011.05.001","article-title":"Loss of expression of miR-335 is implicated in hepatic stellate cell migration and activation","volume":"317","author":"Chen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Exp. Cell. Res."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3627","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-013-3550-9","article-title":"Differential diagnosis of cystic and alveolar echinococcosis using an immunochromatographic test based on the detection of specific antibodies","volume":"112","author":"Wang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.actatropica.2019.105255","article-title":"Parasite-derived microRNAs in plasma as novel promising biomarkers for the early detection of hydatid cyst infection and post-surgery follow-up","volume":"202","author":"Alizadeh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Acta Trop."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e38920","DOI":"10.5812\/hepatmon.38920","article-title":"Hepatic Alveolar Hydatid Cyst: A Brief Review of Published Cases from Iran in the Last 20 Years","volume":"16","author":"Geramizadeh","year":"2016","journal-title":"Hepat. Mon."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182097001170","article-title":"Cloning of peroxiredoxin, a novel antioxidant enzyme, from the helminth parasite Fasciola hepatica","volume":"115","author":"McGonigle","year":"1997","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1255","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2005.07.010","article-title":"Fascioliasis and other plant-borne trematode zoonoses","volume":"35","author":"Bargues","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-3024.2010.01223.x","article-title":"Improving animal and human health through understanding liver fluke immunology","volume":"32","author":"Piedrafita","year":"2010","journal-title":"Parasite Immunol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111201","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molbiopara.2019.111201","article-title":"Profiling circulating microRNAs in serum of Fasciola gigantica-infected buffalo","volume":"232","author":"Guo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Biochem. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/s13578-015-0009-y","article-title":"The expression profile of Aedes albopictus miRNAs is altered by dengue virus serotype-2 infection","volume":"5","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell. Biosci."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-8722-6-6","article-title":"Diverse functions of miR-125 family in different cell contexts","volume":"6","author":"Sun","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Hematol. Oncol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fromm, B., Ovchinnikov, V., Hoye, E., Bernal, D., Hackenberg, M., and Marcilla, A. (2017). On the presence and immunoregulatory functions of extracellular microRNAs in the trematode Fasciola hepatica. Parasite Immunol., 39.","DOI":"10.1111\/pim.12399"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/22\/7\/3554\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T13:33:14Z","timestamp":1760362394000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/22\/7\/3554"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,30]]},"references-count":129,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms22073554"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms22073554","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,30]]}}}