{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,18]],"date-time":"2026-05-18T17:37:34Z","timestamp":1779125854354,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":182,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,26]],"date-time":"2021-05-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1621987200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011912","name":"Taipei Veterans General Hospital","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["V110C-046"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["V110C-046"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011912","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Ministry of Science &amp; Technology, Taiwan","award":["MOST107-2314-B-075-051-MY3"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST107-2314-B-075-051-MY3"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a typical autoimmune-mediated rheumatic disease presenting as a chronic synovitis in the joint. The chronic synovial inflammation is characterized by hyper-vascularity and extravasation of various immune-related cells to form lymphoid aggregates where an intimate cross-talk among innate and adaptive immune cells takes place. These interactions facilitate production of abundant proinflammatory cytokines, chemokines and growth factors for the proliferation\/maturation\/differentiation of B lymphocytes to become plasma cells. Finally, the autoantibodies against denatured immunoglobulin G (rheumatoid factors), EB virus nuclear antigens (EBNAs) and citrullinated protein (ACPAs) are produced to trigger the development of RA. Furthermore, it is documented that gene mutations, abnormal epigenetic regulation of peptidylarginine deiminase genes 2 and 4 (PADI2 and PADI4), and thereby the induced autoantibodies against PAD2 and PAD4 are implicated in ACPA production in RA patients. The aberrant expressions of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) including microRNAs (miRs) and long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) in the immune system undoubtedly derange the mRNA expressions of cytokines\/chemokines\/growth factors. In the present review, we will discuss in detail the expression of these ncRNAs and their target molecules participating in developing RA, and the potential biomarkers for the disease, its diagnosis, cardiovascular complications and therapeutic response. Finally, we propose some prospective investigations for unraveling the conundrums of rheumatoid pathogenesis.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22115689","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,26]],"date-time":"2021-05-26T21:56:44Z","timestamp":1622066204000},"page":"5689","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["The Expression of Non-Coding RNAs and Their Target Molecules in Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Molecular Basis for Rheumatoid Pathogenesis and Its Potential Clinical Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4154-4018","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chang-Youh","family":"Tsai","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Allergy, Immunology & Rheumatology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, National Yang-Ming Chiao-Tung University, Taipei 11217, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Song-Chou","family":"Hsieh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 10002, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Chih-Wei","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Allergy, Immunology & Rheumatology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, National Yang-Ming Chiao-Tung University, Taipei 11217, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4794-9438","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cheng-Hsun","family":"Lu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 10002, Taiwan"},{"name":"Institute of Molecular Medicine, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 10002, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hsien-Tzung","family":"Liao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Allergy, Immunology & Rheumatology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, National Yang-Ming Chiao-Tung University, Taipei 11217, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ming-Han","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Allergy, Immunology & Rheumatology, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, National Yang-Ming Chiao-Tung University, Taipei 11217, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ko-Jen","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 10002, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Cheng-Han","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 10002, Taiwan"},{"name":"Institute of Molecular Medicine, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 10002, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3218-0689","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cheih-Yu","family":"Shen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 10002, Taiwan"},{"name":"Institute of Molecular Medicine, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 10002, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yu-Min","family":"Kuo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 10002, Taiwan"},{"name":"Institute of Molecular Medicine, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 10002, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4988-0400","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chia-Li","family":"Yu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, National Taiwan University Hospital, National Taiwan University College of Medicine, Taipei 10002, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,5,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cca.2016.02.010","article-title":"Understanding the role of cytokines in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis","volume":"455","author":"Mateen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Clin. 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