{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T19:35:28Z","timestamp":1791920128852,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":103,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,21]],"date-time":"2021-06-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1624233600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been associated with excess mortality worldwide. The cardiovascular system is the second most common target of SARS-CoV-2, which leads to severe complications, including acute myocardial injury, myocarditis, arrhythmias, and venous thromboembolism, as well as other major thrombotic events because of direct endothelial injury and an excessive systemic inflammatory response. This review focuses on the similarities and the differences of inflammatory pathways involved in COVID-19 and atherosclerosis. Anti-inflammatory agents and immunomodulators have recently been assessed, which may constitute rational treatments for the reduction of cardiovascular events in both COVID-19 and atherosclerotic heart disease.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22126607","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,21]],"date-time":"2021-06-21T04:21:21Z","timestamp":1624249281000},"page":"6607","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":68,"title":["Inflammatory Mechanisms in COVID-19 and Atherosclerosis: Current Pharmaceutical Perspectives"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Marios","family":"Sagris","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Cardiology Department, \u2018Hippokration\u2019 General Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9260-6306","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Panagiotis","family":"Theofilis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Cardiology Department, \u2018Hippokration\u2019 General Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexios S.","family":"Antonopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Cardiology Department, \u2018Hippokration\u2019 General Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Costas","family":"Tsioufis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Cardiology Department, \u2018Hippokration\u2019 General Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8079-0599","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Evangelos","family":"Oikonomou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Cardiology Department, \u2018Hippokration\u2019 General Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Charalambos","family":"Antoniades","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Radcliffe Department of Medicine, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK"},{"name":"Oxford Centre of Research Excellence, British Heart Foundation, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK"},{"name":"Oxford Biomedical Research Centre, National Institute of Health Research, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Filippo","family":"Crea","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cardiovascular and Thoracic Sciences, Catholic University, 00168 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8068-0189","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan Carlos","family":"Kaski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Molecular and Clinical Sciences Research Institute, St George\u2019s University of London, London SW17 0RE, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dimitris","family":"Tousoulis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1st Cardiology Department, \u2018Hippokration\u2019 General Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,6,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"667","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jiph.2020.03.019","article-title":"Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19): A literature review","volume":"13","author":"Harapan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. 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