{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,3]],"date-time":"2026-06-03T17:15:39Z","timestamp":1780506939432,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":71,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,19]],"date-time":"2021-07-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1626652800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Heart failure (HF) remains the leading cause of morbidity and death in the western world, and new therapeutic modalities are urgently needed to improve the lifespan and quality of life of HF patients. The sodium-glucose co-transporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors, originally developed and mainly indicated for diabetes mellitus treatment, have been increasingly shown to ameliorate heart disease, and specifically HF, in humans, regardless of diabetes co-existence. Indeed, dapagliflozin has been reported to reduce cardiovascular mortality and hospitalizations in patients with HF and reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). This SGLT2 inhibitor demonstrates these benefits also in non-diabetic subjects, indicating that dapagliflozin\u2019s efficacy in HF is independent of blood glucose control. Evidence for the effectiveness of various SGLT2 inhibitors in providing cardiovascular benefits irrespective of their effects on blood glucose regulation have spurred the use of these agents in HFrEF treatment and resulted in FDA approvals for cardiovascular indications. The obvious question arising from all these studies is, of course, which molecular\/pharmacological mechanisms underlie these cardiovascular benefits of the drugs in diabetics and non-diabetics alike. The fact that SGLT2 is not significantly expressed in cardiac myocytes (SGLT1 appears to be the dominant isoform) adds even greater perplexity to this answer. A variety of mechanisms have been proposed over the past few years and tested in cell and animal models and prominent among those is the potential for sympatholysis, i.e., reduction in sympathetic nervous system activity. The latter is known to be high in HF patients, contributing significantly to the morbidity and mortality of the disease. The present minireview first summarizes the current evidence in the literature supporting the notion that SGLT2 inhibitors, such as dapagliflozin and empagliflozin, exert sympatholysis, and also outlines the main putative underlying mechanisms for these sympatholytic effects. Then, we propose a novel hypothesis, centered on the adrenal medulla, for the sympatholytic effects specifically of dapagliflozin. Adrenal medulla is responsible for the production and secretion of almost the entire amount of circulating epinephrine and of a significant percentage of circulating norepinephrine in the human body. If proven true experimentally, this hypothesis, along with other emerging experimental evidence for sympatholytic effects in neurons, will shed new light on the pharmacological effects that mediate the cardiovascular benefits of SGLT2 inhibitor drugs, independently of their blood glucose-lowering effects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22147684","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,19]],"date-time":"2021-07-19T04:55:40Z","timestamp":1626670540000},"page":"7684","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":40,"title":["Sympatholytic Mechanisms for the Beneficial Cardiovascular Effects of SGLT2 Inhibitors: A Research Hypothesis for Dapagliflozin\u2019s Effects in the Adrenal Gland"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9817-6319","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anastasios","family":"Lymperopoulos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for the Study of Neurohormonal Control of the Circulation, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33328-2018, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jordana I.","family":"Borges","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for the Study of Neurohormonal Control of the Circulation, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33328-2018, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Natalie","family":"Cora","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for the Study of Neurohormonal Control of the Circulation, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33328-2018, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anastasiya","family":"Sizova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory for the Study of Neurohormonal Control of the Circulation, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nova Southeastern University, Fort Lauderdale, FL 33328-2018, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/s40265-014-0337-y","article-title":"Pharmacodynamics, efficacy and safety of sodium\u2013glucose co-transporter type 2 (SGLT2) Inhibitors for the Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus","volume":"75","author":"Scheen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Drugs"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.1177\/2047487318755531","article-title":"Sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitors and cardiovascular outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"25","author":"Usman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Eur. 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