{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,30]],"date-time":"2026-10-30T12:38:42Z","timestamp":1793363922847,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":126,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,23]],"date-time":"2021-07-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1626998400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Autophagy is an attractive process to researchers who are seeking novel potential treatments for various diseases. Autophagy plays a critical role in degrading damaged cellular organelles, supporting normal cell development, and maintaining cellular homeostasis. Because of the various effects of autophagy, recent human genome research has focused on evaluating the relationship between autophagy and a wide variety of diseases, such as autoimmune diseases, cancers, and inflammatory diseases. The skin is the largest organ in the body and provides the first line of defense against environmental hazards, including UV damage, chemical toxins, injuries, oxidative stress, and microorganisms. Autophagy takes part in endogenous defense mechanisms by controlling skin homeostasis. In this manner, regulating autophagy might contribute to the treatment of skin barrier dysfunctions. Various studies are ongoing to elucidate the association between autophagy and skin-related diseases in order to find potential therapeutic approaches. However, little evidence has been gathered about the relationship between autophagy and the skin. In this review, we highlight the previous findings of autophagy and skin barrier disorders and suggest potential therapeutic strategies. The recent research regarding autophagy in acne and skin aging is also discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22157869","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,23]],"date-time":"2021-07-23T10:31:44Z","timestamp":1627036304000},"page":"7869","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Potential Therapeutic Approaches through Modulating the Autophagy Process for Skin Barrier Dysfunction"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Min Sik","family":"Choi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Lab of Pharmacology, College of Pharmacy, Dongduk Women\u2019s University, Seoul 02748, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4921-4192","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yoon-Jee","family":"Chae","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Pharmacy, Woosuk University, Wanju-gun 55338, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ji Woong","family":"Choi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Pharmacy, Gachon University, Incheon 21936, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0037-1560","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ji-Eun","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Lab of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Dongduk Women\u2019s University, Seoul 02748, Korea"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"814","DOI":"10.1038\/ncb0910-814","article-title":"Eaten alive: A history of macroautophagy","volume":"12","author":"Yang","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bulcan.2020.11.004","article-title":"An overview of autophagy: Mechanism, regulation and research progress","volume":"108","author":"Cao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bull. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1093\/advances\/nmy011","article-title":"Autophagy: The last defense against cellular nutritional stress","volume":"9","author":"He","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"1","article-title":"Hypoxia-induced autophagy mediates cisplatin resistance in lung cancer cells","volume":"5","author":"Wu","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.devcel.2017.02.016","article-title":"Cleaning house: Selective autophagy of organelles","volume":"41","author":"Anding","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dev. Cell"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdermsci.2014.08.010","article-title":"Classification of inflammatory skin diseases: A proposal based on the disorders of the three-layered defense systems, barrier, innate immunity and acquired immunity","volume":"76","author":"Dainichi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Dermatol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.3349\/ymj.2006.47.3.293","article-title":"An update of the defensive barrier function of skin","volume":"47","author":"Lee","year":"2006","journal-title":"Yonsei Med. J."},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"142","article-title":"The Skin as an Immune Organ","volume":"160","author":"Salmon","year":"1994","journal-title":"West. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"950","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1254229","article-title":"The gentle touch receptors of mammalian skin","volume":"346","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Woo, W.M. (2019). Skin structure and biology. Imaging Technol. Transdermal Deliv. Ski. Disord., 1\u201314.","DOI":"10.1002\/9783527814633.ch1"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0625.2007.00590.x","article-title":"The whole epidermis as the forefront of the sensory system","volume":"16","author":"Boulais","year":"2007","journal-title":"Exp. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsc.2011.04.003","article-title":"Aging Skin: Histology, Physiology, and Pathology","volume":"19","author":"Khavkin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Facial Plast. Surg. Clin."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1007\/s00109-014-1225-3","article-title":"Targeting autophagy in skin diseases","volume":"93","author":"Yu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"728","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2011.10.026","article-title":"Autophagy: Renovation of cells and tissues","volume":"147","author":"Mizushima","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1038\/nature09782","article-title":"Autophagy in immunity and inflammation","volume":"469","author":"Levine","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2018.09.048","article-title":"Biological Functions of Autophagy Genes: A Disease Perspective","volume":"176","author":"Levine","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"145","article-title":"Lysosomal degradation of intracellular nucleic acids-multiple autophagic pathways","volume":"161","author":"Fujiwara","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"jcs246322","DOI":"10.1242\/jcs.246322","article-title":"Microautophagy\u2014Distinct molecular mechanisms handle cargoes of many sizes","volume":"133","author":"Schuck","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Cell Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1038\/s41580-018-0001-6","article-title":"The coming of age of chaperone-mediated autophagy","volume":"19","author":"Kaushik","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1038\/s41556-018-0037-z","article-title":"Cargo recognition and degradation by selective autophagy","volume":"20","author":"Gatica","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"818","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aax3769","article-title":"Cellular quality control by the ubiquitin-proteasome system and autophagy","volume":"366","author":"Pohl","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12876","DOI":"10.1111\/acel.12876","article-title":"Autophagy and aging: Maintaining the proteome through exercise and caloric restriction","volume":"18","author":"Escobar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Aging Cell"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1038\/ncb0910-823","article-title":"Autophagy in mammalian development and differentiation","volume":"12","author":"Mizushima","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-018-0095-2","article-title":"Autophagy in the renewal, differentiation and homeostasis of immune cells","volume":"19","author":"Clarke","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1080\/15548627.2017.1402992","article-title":"Autophagy balances inflammation in innate immunity","volume":"14","author":"Deretic","year":"2018","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-immunol-042617-053253","article-title":"Autophagy and Inflammation","volume":"36","author":"Hwang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"610","DOI":"10.1101\/gad.325514.119","article-title":"Role of tumor and host autophagy in cancer metabolism","volume":"33","author":"White","year":"2019","journal-title":"Genes Dev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2017.01.007","article-title":"Autophagy and autoimmunity","volume":"176","author":"Wu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(07)61128-3","article-title":"Pathogenesis and clinical features of psoriasis","volume":"370","author":"Griffiths","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rendon, A., and Sch\u00e4kel, K. (2019). Psoriasis Pathogenesis and Treatment. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms20061475"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chang, J., and Choi, M.S. (2020). A Molecular Perspective on the Potential Benefits of Metformin for the Treatment of Inflammatory Skin Disorders. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21238960"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"374","DOI":"10.1080\/09546634.2016.1254331","article-title":"Worldwide utilization of topical remedies in treatment of psoriasis: A systematic review","volume":"28","author":"Svendsen","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Dermatolog. Treat."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1111\/bjd.19169","article-title":"Systematic review examining changes over time and variation in the incidence and prevalence of psoriasis by age and gender","volume":"184","author":"Iskandar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1248","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.1001954","article-title":"Autophagy Negatively Regulates Keratinocyte Inflammatory Responses via Scaffolding Protein p62\/SQSTM1","volume":"186","author":"Lee","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1111\/bjd.12322","article-title":"Is chronic plaque psoriasis triggered by microbiota in the skin?","volume":"169","author":"Fry","year":"2013","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jid.2019.12.022","article-title":"Specific IgA and CLA+ T-Cell IL-17 Response to Streptococcus pyogenes in Psoriasis","volume":"140","author":"Ferran","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"1963","article-title":"Role of Autophagy in Psoriasis","volume":"08","author":"Khaleel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Mol. Clin. Med."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.2340\/00015555-1183","article-title":"Polymorphisms in the ATG16L1 Gene are Associated with Psoriasis Vulgaris No significant deviation from the Hardy-Weinberg","volume":"92","author":"Douroudis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Derm. Venereol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1679","DOI":"10.1242\/jcs.00381","article-title":"Mouse Apg16L, a novel WD-repeat protein, targets to the autophagic isolation membrane with the Apg12- Apg5 conjugate","volume":"116","author":"Mizushima","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Cell Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1159\/000500470","article-title":"Autophagy in Skin Diseases","volume":"235","author":"Guo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dermatology"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3183","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20071094","article-title":"Amelioration of epidermal hyperplasia by TNF inhibition is associated with reduced Th17 responses","volume":"204","author":"Zaba","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.174.1.164","article-title":"Dysfunctional Blood and Target Tissue CD4 + CD25 high Regulatory T Cells in Psoriasis: Mechanism Underlying Unrestrained Pathogenic Effector T Cell Proliferation","volume":"174","author":"Sugiyama","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1038\/jid.2008.194","article-title":"Psoriasis is characterized by accumulation of immunostimulatory and Th1\/Th17 cell-polarizing myeloid dendritic cells","volume":"129","author":"Zaba","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Furue, M., Furue, K., Tsuji, G., and Nakahara, T. (2020). Interleukin-17A and keratinocytes in psoriasis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21041275"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1007\/s12026-020-09149-1","article-title":"The role of Th17 cells in psoriasis","volume":"68","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Immunol. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2249.2007.03356.x","article-title":"The role of T helper 17 (Th17) and regulatory T cells (Treg) in human organ transplantation and autoimmune disease","volume":"148","author":"Afzali","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1155\/MI.2005.273","article-title":"Serum levels of TNF-\u03b1, IFN-\u03b3, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, IL-17, and IL-18 in patients with active psoriasis and correlation with disease severity","volume":"2005","author":"Arican","year":"2005","journal-title":"Mediators Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clml.2019.03.004","article-title":"Mogamulizumab for the Treatment of Adult T-cell Leukemia\/Lymphoma","volume":"19","author":"Ureshino","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Lymphoma Myeloma Leuk."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1111\/bjd.19380","article-title":"Role of regulatory T cells in psoriasis pathogenesis and treatment","volume":"184","author":"Nussbaum","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br. J. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1111\/sji.12404","article-title":"Characterization of Th17 and FoxP3+ Treg Cells in Paediatric Psoriasis Patients","volume":"83","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Scand. J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clim.2013.06.007","article-title":"Psoriasis patients exhibit impairment of the high potency CCR5+ T regulatory cell subset","volume":"149","author":"Soler","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, S.K., Park, M.J., Jhun, J.Y., Beak, J.A., Choi, J.W., Rye, J.Y., Jang, J.W., Bae, S.H., Yoon, S.K., and Choi, H.J. (2021). Combination Treatment With Metformin and Tacrolimus Improves Systemic Immune Cellular Homeostasis by Modulating Treg and Th17 Imbalance. Front. Immunol., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.581728"},{"key":"ref_53","first-page":"822","article-title":"Role of beclin 1 and autophagy in vitiligo","volume":"31","author":"Samaka","year":"2018","journal-title":"Menoufia Med. J."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-021-03592-0","article-title":"A protective role for autophagy in vitiligo","volume":"12","author":"Bastonini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1080\/09546634.2018.1564232","article-title":"Evaluation of using fractional CO2 laser plus NB-UVB versus NB-UVB alone in inducing marginal repigmentation of vitiligo lesions","volume":"30","author":"Ghasemloo","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Dermatolog. Treat."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bzioueche, H., Sj\u00f6din, K.S., West, C.E., Khemis, A., Rocchi, S., Passeron, T., and Tulic, M.K. (2021). Analysis of Matched Skin and Gut Microbiome of Vitiligo Patients Reveals Deep skin Dysbiosis: Link with Mitochondrial and Immune Changes. J. Investig. Dermatol.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.07.29.20163469"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autrev.2015.12.006","article-title":"Vitiligo: Pathogenesis, clinical variants and treatment approaches","volume":"15","author":"Iannella","year":"2016","journal-title":"Autoimmun. Rev."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0749.2006.00355.x","article-title":"The definition and assessment of vitiligo: A consensus report of the Vitiligo European Task Force","volume":"20","author":"Picardo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Pigment Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"1","article-title":"Association of GZMB polymorphisms and susceptibility to non-segmental vitiligo in a Korean population","volume":"11","author":"Jeong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.12369","article-title":"Cellular stress and innate inflammation in organ-specific autoimmunity: Lessons learned from vitiligo","volume":"269","author":"Harris","year":"2016","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.01376","article-title":"More than skin deep: Autophagy is vital for skin barrier function","volume":"9","author":"Sil","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2416","DOI":"10.1038\/jid.2013.165","article-title":"Autophagy has a significant role in determining skin color by regulating melanosome degradation in keratinocytes","volume":"133","author":"Murase","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0075313","article-title":"ULK1 Regulates Melanin Levels in MNT-1 Cells Independently of mTORC1","volume":"8","author":"Kalie","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e323","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0625.2009.01039.x","article-title":"Association of UVRAG polymorphisms with susceptibility to non-segmental vitiligo in a Korean sample","volume":"19","author":"Jeong","year":"2010","journal-title":"Exp. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barnett, T.C., Bowen, A.C., and Carapetis, J.R. (2019). The fall and rise of Group A Streptococcus diseases. Epidemiol. Infect., 147.","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268818002285"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6968","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2018.10.001","article-title":"An economic case for a vaccine to prevent group A streptococcus skin infections","volume":"36","author":"Cannon","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1007\/s11936-017-0513-y","article-title":"Group A streptococcus, acute rheumatic fever and rheumatic heart disease: Epidemiology and clinical considerations","volume":"19","author":"Beaton","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Treat. Options Cardiovasc. Med."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00101-13","article-title":"Disease manifestations and pathogenic mechanisms of group A Streptococcus","volume":"27","author":"Walker","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1037","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1103966","article-title":"Autophagy defends cells against invading group A Streptococcus","volume":"306","author":"Nakagawa","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5909","DOI":"10.4049\/jimmunol.0900441","article-title":"The adaptor protein p62\/SQSTM1 targets invading bacteria to the autophagy pathway","volume":"183","author":"Zheng","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, S., Wu, K., Zhao, M., Zhu, E., Ma, S., Chen, Y., Ding, H., Yi, L., Zhao, M., and Chen, J. (2020). The Role of Autophagy and Autophagy Receptor NDP52 in Microbial Infections. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21062008"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.4161\/auto.6.2.11118","article-title":"NDP52, a novel autophagy receptor for ubiquitin-decorated cytosolic bacteria","volume":"6","author":"Thurston","year":"2010","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.201009067","article-title":"p62 Targeting to the autophagosome formation site requires self-oligomerization but not LC3 binding","volume":"192","author":"Itakura","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01435-15","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01435-15","article-title":"Insufficient acidification of autophagosomes facilitates group A streptococcus survival and growth in endothelial cells","volume":"6","author":"Lu","year":"2015","journal-title":"MBio"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00771-20","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00771-20","article-title":"Integrin \u03b15\u03b21, as a Receptor of Fibronectin, Binds the FbaA Protein of Group A Streptococcus To Initiate Autophagy during Infection","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"MBio"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.00117","article-title":"Nicotinamide Increases Intracellular NAD+ Content to Enhance Autophagy-Mediated Group A Streptococcal Clearance in Endothelial Cells","volume":"11","author":"Hsieh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"466","DOI":"10.1080\/15548627.2018.1532260","article-title":"RAB30 regulates PI4KB (phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase beta)-dependent autophagy against group A Streptococcus","volume":"15","author":"Nakajima","year":"2019","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2013.11.003","article-title":"The globally disseminated M1T1 clone of group a streptococcus evades autophagy for intracellular replication","volume":"14","author":"Barnett","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaad.2007.06.027","article-title":"Human herpes simplex virus infections: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, symptomatology, diagnosis, and management","volume":"57","author":"Fatahzadeh","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Am. Acad. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3668","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-06078-4","article-title":"Structure of the herpes simplex virus type 2 C-capsid with capsid-vertex-specific component","volume":"9","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11583","article-title":"Impaired intrinsic immunity to HSV-1 in human iPSC-derived TLR3-deficient CNS cells","volume":"491","author":"Lafaille","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lussignol, M., and Esclatine, A. (2017). Herpesvirus and Autophagy: \u201cAll Right, Everybody Be Cool, This Is a Robbery!\u201d. Viruses, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/v9120372"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1080\/15548627.2016.1139262","article-title":"Autophagy interaction with herpes simplex virus type-1 infection","volume":"12","author":"Liang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.1720","article-title":"Autophagy enhances the presentation of endogenous viral antigens on MHC class I molecules during HSV-1 infection","volume":"10","author":"English","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/j.immuni.2009.12.006","article-title":"In vivo requirement for Atg5 in antigen presentation by dendritic cells","volume":"32","author":"Lee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Immunity"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12164","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01676-09","article-title":"Interaction of ICP34. 5 with Beclin 1 modulates herpes simplex virus type 1 pathogenesis through control of CD4+ T-cell responses","volume":"83","author":"Leib","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"859","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01158-12","article-title":"The herpes simplex virus 1 Us11 protein inhibits autophagy through its interaction with the protein kinase PKR","volume":"87","author":"Lussignol","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3065","DOI":"10.1128\/IAI.00358-12","article-title":"Macrophage autophagy in immunity to Cryptococcus neoformans and Candida albicans","volume":"80","author":"Nicola","year":"2012","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1363","DOI":"10.2217\/fmb-2019-0298","article-title":"Role of the inositol polyphosphate kinase Vip1 in autophagy and pathogenesis in Candida albicans","volume":"15","author":"Ma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Future Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc3262","article-title":"Deconvoluting the context-dependent role for autophagy in cancer","volume":"12","author":"White","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1142","DOI":"10.1038\/s41388-017-0046-6","article-title":"Dual role of autophagy in hallmarks of cancer","volume":"37","author":"Singh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Oncogene"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yun, C.W., and Lee, S.H. (2018). The roles of autophagy in cancer. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19113466"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reichrath, J. (2020). Epidemiology of Skin Cancer: Update 2019. Sunlight, Vitamin D and Skin Cancer, Sringer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-46227-7"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clindermatol.2017.10.008","article-title":"Epidemiology of skin cancer in the mature patient","volume":"36","author":"Lai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Clin. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_95","first-page":"1","article-title":"The anti-skin squamous cell carcinoma cell activity by the SphK1- targeting microRNA-6784","volume":"12","author":"Gong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aging Albany"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Verschooten, L., Barrette, K., van Kelst, S., Rubio Romero, N., Proby, C., de Vos, R., Agostinis, P., and Garmyn, M. (2012). Autophagy Inhibitor Chloroquine Enhanced the Cell Death Inducing Effect of the Flavonoid Luteolin in Metastatic Squamous Cell Carcinoma Cells. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0048264"},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"4855","article-title":"Chloroquine promotes gefitinib-induced apoptosis by inhibiting protective autophagy in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma","volume":"20","author":"Ou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mol. Med. Rep."},{"key":"ref_98","first-page":"368","article-title":"Gefitinib-mediated apoptosis is enhanced via inhibition of autophagy by chloroquine diphosphate in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma cells","volume":"18","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Oncol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3147","DOI":"10.3892\/or.2015.4302","article-title":"Autophagy in human skin squamous cell carcinoma: Inhibition by 3-MA enhances the effect of 5-FU-induced chemotherapy sensitivity","volume":"34","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Oncol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.12688\/f1000research.8347.1","article-title":"Autophagy\u2014An emerging target for melanoma therapy","volume":"5","author":"Ndoye","year":"2016","journal-title":"F1000Research"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"731","DOI":"10.2105\/AJPH.2020.305567","article-title":"New systematic therapies and trends in cutaneous melanoma deaths among US whites, 1986\u20132016","volume":"110","author":"Stein","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Public Health"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/cddis.2011.86","article-title":"Metformin inhibits melanoma development through autophagy and apoptosis mechanisms","volume":"2","author":"Tomic","year":"2011","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/354191","article-title":"RAS\/RAF\/MEK\/ERK and PI3K\/PTEN\/AKT signaling in malignant melanoma progression and therapy","volume":"2012","author":"Yajima","year":"2012","journal-title":"Dermatol. Res. Pract."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1007\/s10555-005-5865-1","article-title":"The role of B-RAF in melanoma","volume":"24","author":"Marais","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cancer Metastasis Rev."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"711","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1003466","article-title":"Improved Survival with Ipilimumab in Patients with Metastatic Melanoma","volume":"363","author":"Hodi","year":"2010","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1002011","article-title":"Inhibition of Mutated, Activated BRAF in Metastatic Melanoma","volume":"363","author":"Flaherty","year":"2010","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1158\/1078-0432.CCR-11-1282","article-title":"Punctate LC3B expression is a common feature of solid tumors and associated with proliferation, metastasis, and poor outcome","volume":"18","author":"Lazova","year":"2012","journal-title":"Clin. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1158\/2159-8290.CD-14-1473","article-title":"Atg7 overcomes senescence and promotes growth of BRAFV600E_driven melanoma","volume":"5","author":"Xie","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cancer Discov."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"354","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0749.1993.tb00613.x","article-title":"Antimelanoma Activity of Chloroquine, an Antimalarial Agent with High Affinity for Melanin","volume":"6","author":"INOUE","year":"1993","journal-title":"Pigment Cell Res."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2249","DOI":"10.1007\/s11095-012-0753-1","article-title":"Chloroquine-mediated lysosomal dysfunction enhances the anticancer effect of nutrient deprivation","volume":"29","author":"Arsikin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Pharm. Res."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jss.2013.04.055","article-title":"Inhibition of autophagy with chloroquine is effective in melanoma","volume":"184","author":"Egger","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Surg. Res."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1369","DOI":"10.4161\/auto.29118","article-title":"Phase I trial of hydroxychloroquine with dose-intense temozolomide in patients with advanced solid tumors and melanoma","volume":"10","author":"Rangwala","year":"2014","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1391","DOI":"10.4161\/auto.29119","article-title":"Combined MTOR and autophagy inhibition: Phase I trial of hydroxychloroquine and temsirolimus in patients with advanced solid tumors and melanoma","volume":"10","author":"Rangwala","year":"2014","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(11)60321-8","article-title":"Acne vulgaris","volume":"379","author":"Williams","year":"2012","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1142","DOI":"10.1111\/exd.13752","article-title":"Inactivation of autophagy leads to changes in sebaceous gland morphology and function","volume":"27","author":"Rossiter","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1111\/jdv.12298","article-title":"Acne is an inflammatory disease and alterations of sebum composition initiate acne lesions","volume":"28","author":"Zouboulis","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Eur. Acad. Dermatology Venereol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jdermsci.2020.04.001","article-title":"Autophagy regulates lipid production and contributes to the sebosuppressive effect of retinoic acid in human SZ95 sebocytes","volume":"98","author":"Seo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Dermatol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1111\/jocd.13636","article-title":"Topical application of autophagy-activating peptide improved skin barrier function and reduced acne symptoms in acne-prone skin","volume":"20","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Cosmet. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"422","DOI":"10.1111\/acel.12573","article-title":"A novel single-cell method provides direct evidence of persistent DNA damage in senescent cells and aged mammalian tissues","volume":"16","author":"Galbiati","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aging Cell"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exger.2016.05.010","article-title":"Keeping the senescence secretome under control: Molecular reins on the senescence-associated secretory phenotype","volume":"82","author":"Malaquin","year":"2016","journal-title":"Exp. Gerontol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, R.J., Lee, Y.H., Yeh, Y.L., Wang, Y.J., and Wang, B.J. (2016). The roles of autophagy and the inflammasome during environmental stress-triggered skin inflammation. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms17122063"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1691","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jid.2019.11.023","article-title":"The Role of Autophagy in Skin Fibroblasts, Keratinocytes, Melanocytes, and Epidermal Stem Cells","volume":"140","author":"Jeong","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gu, Y., Han, J., Jiang, C., and Zhang, Y. (2020). Biomarkers, oxidative stress and autophagy in skin aging. Ageing Res. Rev., 59.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.arr.2020.101036"},{"key":"ref_124","first-page":"1","article-title":"Keratinocyte differentiation promotes ER stress-dependent lysosome biogenesis","volume":"10","author":"Mahanty","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"932","DOI":"10.1080\/15548627.2019.1646552","article-title":"Cell death induced autophagy contributes to terminal differentiation of skin and skin appendages","volume":"16","author":"Koenig","year":"2020","journal-title":"Autophagy"},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1782","DOI":"10.3892\/ijo.2012.1620","article-title":"GSK3\u03b2 signaling is involved in ultraviolet B-induced activation of autophagy in epidermal cells","volume":"41","author":"Yang","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Oncol."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/22\/15\/7869\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:33:52Z","timestamp":1760164432000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/22\/15\/7869"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,23]]},"references-count":126,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms22157869"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms22157869","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,7,23]]}}}