{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T11:04:18Z","timestamp":1792839858937,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":143,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,11]],"date-time":"2021-08-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1628640000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) is an autoimmune central nervous system (CNS) inflammatory disorder that can lead to serious disability and mortality. Females are predominantly affected, including those within the reproductive age. Most patients develop relapsing attacks of optic neuritis; longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis; and encephalitis, especially brainstem encephalitis. The majority of NMOSD patients are seropositive for IgG autoantibodies against the water channel protein aquaporin-4 (AQP4-IgG), reflecting underlying aquaporin-4 autoimmunity. Histological findings of the affected CNS tissues of patients from in-vitro and in-vivo studies support that AQP4-IgG is directly pathogenic in NMOSD. It is believed that the binding of AQP4-IgG to CNS aquaporin-4 (abundantly expressed at the endfoot processes of astrocytes) triggers astrocytopathy and neuroinflammation, resulting in acute attacks. These attacks of neuroinflammation can lead to pathologies, including aquaporin-4 loss, astrocytic activation, injury and loss, glutamate excitotoxicity, microglial activation, neuroinflammation, demyelination, and neuronal injury, via both complement-dependent and complement-independent pathophysiological mechanisms. With the increased understanding of these mechanisms underlying this serious autoimmune astrocytopathy, effective treatments for both active attacks and long-term immunosuppression to prevent relapses in NMOSD are increasingly available based on the evidence from retrospective observational data and prospective clinical trials. Knowledge on the indications and potential side effects of these medications are essential for a clear evaluation of the potential benefits and risks to NMOSD patients in a personalized manner. Special issues such as pregnancy and the coexistence of other autoimmune diseases require additional concern and meticulous care. Future directions include the identification of clinically useful biomarkers for the prediction of relapse and monitoring of the therapeutic response, as well as the development of effective medications with minimal side effects, especially opportunistic infections complicated by long-term immunosuppression.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22168638","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,11]],"date-time":"2021-08-11T08:35:52Z","timestamp":1628670952000},"page":"8638","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":59,"title":["Treatment of Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Koon-Ho","family":"Chan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Neuroimmunology and Neuroinflammation Research Laboratory, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Research Center of Heart, Brain, Hormone and Healthy Aging, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chi-Yan","family":"Lee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"},{"name":"Neuroimmunology and Neuroinflammation Research Laboratory, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(07)70216-8","article-title":"The spectrum of neuromyelitis optica","volume":"6","author":"Wingerchuk","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e110","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000110","article-title":"Aquaporin-4 autoimmunity","volume":"2","author":"Zekeridou","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurol. 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