{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]],"date-time":"2026-09-30T03:10:11Z","timestamp":1790737811177,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":192,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,23]],"date-time":"2021-08-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1629676800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100011019","name":"Nemzeti Kutat\u00e1si Fejleszt\u00e9si \u00e9s Innov\u00e1ci\u00f3s Hivatal","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["K120311, K131406"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["K120311, K131406"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100011019","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Stress adaptation is of utmost importance for the maintenance of homeostasis and, therefore, of life itself. The prevalence of stress-related disorders is increasing, emphasizing the importance of exploratory research on stress adaptation. Two major regulatory pathways exist: the hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013adrenocortical axis and the sympathetic adrenomedullary axis. They act in unison, ensured by the enormous bidirectional connection between their centers, the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN), and the brainstem monoaminergic cell groups, respectively. PVN and especially their corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) producing neurons are considered to be the centrum of stress regulation. However, the brainstem seems to be equally important. Therefore, we aimed to summarize the present knowledge on the role of classical neurotransmitters of the brainstem (GABA, glutamate as well as serotonin, noradrenaline, adrenaline, and dopamine) in stress adaptation. Neuropeptides, including CRH, might be co-localized in the brainstem nuclei. Here we focused on CRH as its role in stress regulation is well-known and widely accepted and other CRH neurons scattered along the brain may also complement the function of the PVN. Although CRH-positive cells are present on some parts of the brainstem, sometimes even in comparable amounts as in the PVN, not much is known about their contribution to stress adaptation. Based on the role of the Barrington\u2019s nucleus in micturition and the inferior olivary complex in the regulation of fine motoric\u2014as the main CRH-containing brainstem areas\u2014we might assume that these areas regulate stress-induced urination and locomotion, respectively. Further studies are necessary for the field.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22169090","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,23]],"date-time":"2021-08-23T10:24:17Z","timestamp":1629714257000},"page":"9090","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":43,"title":["Stress Adaptation and the Brainstem with Focus on Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Tiago","family":"Chaves","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Behavioural and Stress Studies, Institute of Experimental Medicine, 1083 Budapest, Hungary"},{"name":"Janos Szentagothai School of Neurosciences, Semmelweis University, 1083 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Csilla Lea","family":"Fazekas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Behavioural and Stress Studies, Institute of Experimental Medicine, 1083 Budapest, Hungary"},{"name":"Janos Szentagothai School of Neurosciences, Semmelweis University, 1083 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Krisztina","family":"Horv\u00e1th","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Behavioural and Stress Studies, Institute of Experimental Medicine, 1083 Budapest, Hungary"},{"name":"Janos Szentagothai School of Neurosciences, Semmelweis University, 1083 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pedro","family":"Correia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Behavioural and Stress Studies, Institute of Experimental Medicine, 1083 Budapest, Hungary"},{"name":"Janos Szentagothai School of Neurosciences, Semmelweis University, 1083 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Adrienn","family":"Szab\u00f3","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Behavioural and Stress Studies, Institute of Experimental Medicine, 1083 Budapest, Hungary"},{"name":"Janos Szentagothai School of Neurosciences, Semmelweis University, 1083 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bibi\u00e1na","family":"T\u00f6r\u00f6k","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Behavioural and Stress Studies, Institute of Experimental Medicine, 1083 Budapest, Hungary"},{"name":"Janos Szentagothai School of Neurosciences, Semmelweis University, 1083 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Krisztina","family":"B\u00e1nr\u00e9vi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Behavioural and Stress Studies, Institute of Experimental Medicine, 1083 Budapest, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"D\u00f3ra","family":"Zelena","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Behavioural and Stress Studies, Institute of Experimental Medicine, 1083 Budapest, Hungary"},{"name":"Centre for Neuroscience, Szent\u00e1gothai Research Centre, Institute of Physiology, Medical School, University of P\u00e9cs, 7624 P\u00e9cs, Hungary"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"241","article-title":"Understanding stress: Characteristics and caveats","volume":"23","author":"Anisman","year":"1999","journal-title":"Alcohol. Res. Health"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-8993(00)03262-5","article-title":"Central monoamine activity in genetically distinct strains of mice following a psychogenic stressor: Effects of predator exposure","volume":"892","author":"Hayley","year":"2001","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"366","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2016.05.011","article-title":"Ascending mechanisms of stress integration: Implications for brainstem regulation of neuroendocrine and behavioral stress responses","volume":"74","author":"Myers","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1080\/1025389031000092313","article-title":"Neuroimmune stress responses: Reciprocal connections between the hypothalamus and the brainstem","volume":"6","author":"Buller","year":"2003","journal-title":"Stress"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yfrne.2011.08.002","article-title":"The molecular physiology of CRH neurons","volume":"33","author":"Aguilera","year":"2012","journal-title":"Front. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1002\/cphy.c150015","article-title":"Regulation of the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenocortical Stress Response","volume":"6","author":"Herman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Compr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2013.00026","article-title":"Stress responsiveness of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: Age-related features of the vasopressinergic regulation","volume":"4","author":"Goncharova","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"403","DOI":"10.1080\/10253890.2018.1470238","article-title":"Role of glucocorticoid negative feedback in the regulation of HPA axis pulsatility","volume":"21","author":"Gjerstad","year":"2018","journal-title":"Stress"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.3109\/10253890.2011.586446","article-title":"Mechanisms of rapid glucocorticoid feedback inhibition of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis","volume":"14","author":"Tasker","year":"2011","journal-title":"Stress"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02691093","article-title":"Biological basis of the stress response","volume":"27","author":"Henry","year":"1992","journal-title":"Integr. Physiol. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1126\/science.270.5236.644","article-title":"Central command neurons of the sympathetic nervous system: Basis of the fight-or-flight response","volume":"270","author":"Jansen","year":"1995","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1002\/cphy.c140020","article-title":"Sympathetic preganglionic neurons: Properties and inputs","volume":"5","author":"Deuchars","year":"2015","journal-title":"Compr. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(85)91231-4","article-title":"Specificity of spinal projections from hypothalamic and brainstem areas which innervate sympathetic preganglionic neurons","volume":"360","author":"Tucker","year":"1985","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11937","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms11937","article-title":"Hypothalamic CRH neurons orchestrate complex behaviours after stress","volume":"7","author":"Fuzesi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1080\/10253890.2016.1192120","article-title":"Learning about stress: Neural, endocrine and behavioral adaptations","volume":"19","author":"McCarty","year":"2016","journal-title":"Stress"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agorastos, A., and Chrousos, G.P. (2021). The neuroendocrinology of stress: The stress-related continuum of chronic disease development. Mol. Psychiatry.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-021-01224-9"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2017.07.002","article-title":"Acute or Chronic? A Stressful Question","volume":"40","author":"Musazzi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"321","DOI":"10.1006\/frne.1994.1013","article-title":"Regulation of pituitary ACTH secretion during chronic stress","volume":"15","author":"Aguilera","year":"1994","journal-title":"Front. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1410.037","article-title":"Vasopressin does not mediate hypersensitivity of the hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis during chronic stress","volume":"1148","author":"Chen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1296.018","article-title":"The role of vasopressin in hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis activation during stress: An assessment of the evidence","volume":"1018","author":"Makara","year":"2004","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2245","DOI":"10.1007\/s00726-015-2026-x","article-title":"Vasopressin signaling at brain level controls stress hormone release: The vasopressin-deficient Brattleboro rat as a model","volume":"47","author":"Zelena","year":"2015","journal-title":"Amino Acids"},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"65","article-title":"Stress Adaptation with Special Emphasis on Gastric Erosion: Is Stress a Bad Guy or a Good Guy?","volume":"4","author":"Zelena","year":"2017","journal-title":"Chronic Stress and Health"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2019.02.021","article-title":"Stress and inflammation\u2014The need to address the gap in the transition between acute and chronic stress effects","volume":"105","author":"Rohleder","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1159\/000123454","article-title":"Organization of ovine corticotropin-releasing factor immunoreactive cells and fibers in the rat brain: An immunohistochemical study","volume":"36","author":"Swanson","year":"1983","journal-title":"Neuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3462","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0511320103","article-title":"Vital functions of corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) pathways in maintenance and regulation of energy homeostasis","volume":"103","author":"Carlin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nbd.2011.01.020","article-title":"Forebrain CRHR1 deficiency attenuates chronic stress-induced cognitive deficits and dendritic remodeling","volume":"42","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Dis."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1677\/joe.0.1520081","article-title":"Rapid changes in heteronuclear RNA for corticotrophin-releasing hormone and arginine vasopressin in response to acute stress","volume":"152","author":"Ma","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/S1043-2760(98)00079-4","article-title":"Corticotropin releasing hormone, receptor regulation and the stress response","volume":"9","author":"Aguilera","year":"1998","journal-title":"Trends Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4351","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.138.10.5446","article-title":"Emergence of an isolated arginine vasopressin (AVP) response to stress after repeated restraint: A study of both AVP and corticotropin-releasing hormone messenger ribonucleic acid (RNA) and heteronuclear RNA","volume":"138","author":"Ma","year":"1997","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"857","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2826.1999.00400.x","article-title":"The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response to endotoxin is attenuated during lactation","volume":"11","author":"Shanks","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2011.02.003","article-title":"Circadian rhythm of adrenal glucocorticoid: Its regulation and clinical implications","volume":"1812","author":"Chung","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys Acta"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"529","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2003-0394","article-title":"Corticotropin-releasing hormone and arginine vasopressin gene transcription in the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus of unstressed rats: Daily rhythms and their interactions with corticosterone","volume":"145","author":"Watts","year":"2004","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nlm.2007.10.008","article-title":"Post-training administration of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) enhances retention of a spatial memory through a noradrenergic mechanism in male rats","volume":"89","author":"Row","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurobiol. Learn. Mem"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5016","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.19-12-05016.1999","article-title":"Modulation of learning and anxiety by corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and stress: Differential roles of CRF receptors 1 and 2","volume":"19","author":"Radulovic","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3788","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.22-09-03788.2002","article-title":"Priming of long-term potentiation in mouse hippocampus by corticotropin-releasing factor and acute stress: Implications for hippocampus-dependent learning","volume":"22","author":"Blank","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2903","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0225-08.2008","article-title":"Rapid loss of dendritic spines after stress involves derangement of spine dynamics by corticotropin-releasing hormone","volume":"28","author":"Chen","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8278","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2121-07.2007","article-title":"Chronic glucocorticoids increase hippocampal vulnerability to neurotoxicity under conditions that produce CA3 dendritic retraction but fail to impair spatial recognition memory","volume":"27","author":"Conrad","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1177\/1534582306289043","article-title":"What is the functional significance of chronic stress-induced CA3 dendritic retraction within the hippocampus?","volume":"5","author":"Conrad","year":"2006","journal-title":"Behav. Cogn Neurosci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2012.04.017","article-title":"The link between stress and feeding behaviour","volume":"63","author":"Maniam","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"910","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2014.01.020","article-title":"Neuroendocrine circuits governing energy balance and stress regulation: Functional overlap and therapeutic implications","volume":"19","author":"Ryan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2647","article-title":"Neural regulation of endocrine and autonomic stress responses","volume":"10","author":"Herman","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1113\/JP279387","article-title":"Integration of energy homeostasis and stress by parvocellular neurons in rat hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus","volume":"598","author":"Melnick","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2019.02.048","article-title":"Reward Inhibits Paraventricular CRH Neurons to Relieve Stress","volume":"29","author":"Yuan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2325","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2008-1426","article-title":"Palatable foods, stress, and energy stores sculpt corticotropin-releasing factor, adrenocorticotropin, and corticosterone concentrations after restraint","volume":"150","author":"Foster","year":"2009","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2796","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.142.7.8250","article-title":"Sucrose ingestion normalizes central expression of corticotropin-releasing-factor messenger ribonucleic acid and energy balance in adrenalectomized rats: A glucocorticoid-metabolic-brain axis?","volume":"142","author":"Laugero","year":"2001","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1342","DOI":"10.1126\/science.6334362","article-title":"Elevated concentrations of CSF corticotropin-releasing factor-like immunoreactivity in depressed patients","volume":"226","author":"Nemeroff","year":"1984","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1536","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2010.05.008","article-title":"Noradrenergic function and HPA axis dysregulation in suicidal behaviour","volume":"35","author":"Jokinen","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Basinger, H., and Hogg, J.P. (2021). Neuroanatomy, Brainstem, StatPearls."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R60","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00357.2019","article-title":"Sex-steroid-dependent plasticity of brain-stem autonomic circuits","volume":"319","author":"Littlejohn","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-74805-2_1","article-title":"Neurotransmitter release","volume":"184","author":"Suudhof","year":"2008","journal-title":"Handb Exp. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"128","article-title":"Synaptic vesicles: Key organelles involved in neurotransmission","volume":"84","author":"Jahn","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S109","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjp.0706443","article-title":"GABA and glycine as neurotransmitters: A brief history","volume":"147","author":"Bowery","year":"2006","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601519","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2020.601519","article-title":"The Locus Coeruleus- Norepinephrine System in Stress and Arousal: Unraveling Historical, Current, and Future Perspectives","volume":"11","author":"Ross","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1016\/0301-0082(91)90025-V","article-title":"Non-synaptic interactions at presynaptic level","volume":"37","author":"Vizi","year":"1991","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5625","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.2008.159103","article-title":"Neurotransmitters and peptides: Whispered secrets and public announcements","volume":"586","author":"Leng","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1038\/35049047","article-title":"Interneurons unbound","volume":"2","author":"McBain","year":"2001","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858405284258","article-title":"How neurosecretory vesicles release their cargo","volume":"12","author":"Scalettar","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neuroscientist"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2004-0856","article-title":"Hypophysiotropic thyrotropin-releasing hormone and corticotropin-releasing hormone neurons of the rat contain vesicular glutamate transporter-2","volume":"146","author":"Hrabovszky","year":"2005","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2016.03.029","article-title":"Stress increases GABAergic neurotransmission in CRF neurons of the central amygdala and bed nucleus stria terminalis","volume":"107","author":"Partridge","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.2183\/pjab.89.139","article-title":"Synaptic inhibition and gamma-aminobutyric acid in the mammalian central nervous system","volume":"89","author":"Obata","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Jpn Acad. Ser. B Phys. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"165","article-title":"Anxiety disorders and GABA neurotransmission: A disturbance of modulation","volume":"11","author":"Nuss","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuropsychiatr Dis. Treat."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(15)00021-6","article-title":"The neurobiology, investigation, and treatment of chronic insomnia","volume":"14","author":"Riemann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3369","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-2952(88)90684-3","article-title":"The GABAA receptor-gated ion channel: Biochemical and pharmacological studies of structure and function","volume":"37","author":"Schwartz","year":"1988","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1038\/s41593-018-0151-z","article-title":"Chronic CRH depletion from GABAergic, long-range projection neurons in the extended amygdala reduces dopamine release and increases anxiety","volume":"21","author":"Dedic","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"969","DOI":"10.2174\/156802606777323737","article-title":"Functional significance of co-localization of GABA and Glu in nerve terminals: A hypothesis","volume":"6","author":"Somogyi","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Top. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1038\/42468","article-title":"GABA in the mammalian suprachiasmatic nucleus and its role in diurnal rhythmicity","volume":"387","author":"Wagner","year":"1997","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-008-0192-2","article-title":"Functional role of local GABAergic influences on the HPA axis","volume":"213","author":"Cullinan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.3389\/fncel.2019.00087","article-title":"Cortical GABAergic Dysfunction in Stress and Depression: New Insights for Therapeutic Interventions","volume":"13","author":"Fogaca","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Cell Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2008.09.007","article-title":"GABAergic mediation of stress-induced secretion of corticosterone and oxytocin, but not prolactin, by the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus","volume":"83","author":"Franci","year":"2008","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18198","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2560-11.2011","article-title":"Neurosteroidogenesis is required for the physiological response to stress: Role of neurosteroid-sensitive GABAA receptors","volume":"31","author":"Sarkar","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"231","DOI":"10.1016\/S0306-4522(02)00034-9","article-title":"GABA mechanisms and sleep","volume":"111","author":"Gottesmann","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_72","first-page":"133","article-title":"The role of GABA in the pathophysiology and treatment of anxiety disorders","volume":"37","author":"Nemeroff","year":"2003","journal-title":"Psychopharmacol Bull."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-0327(95)00025-I","article-title":"GABA and mood disorders: A brief review and hypothesis","volume":"34","author":"Petty","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Affect. Disord"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2006.09.082","article-title":"Normal [3H]flunitrazepam binding to GABAA receptors in the locus coeruleus in major depression and suicide","volume":"1125","author":"Zhu","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(81)91000-3","article-title":"Rapid changes in GABA binding induced by stress in different areas of the rat brain","volume":"229","author":"Biggio","year":"1981","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3908(86)90085-7","article-title":"Concentrations of GABA and glycine in discrete brain nuclei. Stress-induced changes in the levels of inhibitory amino acids","volume":"25","author":"Elekes","year":"1986","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.autneu.2006.02.010","article-title":"Stress-induced cardiac stimulation and fever: Common hypothalamic origins and brainstem mechanisms","volume":"126\u2013127","author":"DiMicco","year":"2006","journal-title":"Auton. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.3109\/10641969509087057","article-title":"The tachycardia associated with the defense reaction involves activation of both GABAA and GABAB receptors in the nucleus tractus solitarii","volume":"17","author":"Kunos","year":"1995","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Hypertens"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-017-0528-7","article-title":"Contribution of Vesicular Glutamate Transporters to Stress Response and Related Psychopathologies: Studies in VGluT3 Knockout Mice","volume":"38","author":"Horvath","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2004.10.034","article-title":"Glutamate agonists activate the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis through hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus but not through vasopressinerg neurons","volume":"1031","author":"Zelena","year":"2005","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1159\/000054433","article-title":"Simultaneous blockade of two glutamate receptor subtypes (NMDA and AMPA) results in stressor-specific inhibition of prolactin and corticotropin release","volume":"69","author":"Zelena","year":"1999","journal-title":"Neuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"565","article-title":"Repeated restraint stress enhances glutamatergic transmission in the paraventricular nucleus of the rat hypothalamus","volume":"64","author":"Kusek","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2369","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.23043","article-title":"Brainstem origins of glutamatergic innervation of the rat hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus","volume":"520","author":"Ziegler","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Comp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3011","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-014-0841-6","article-title":"Glutamatergic phenotype of glucagon-like peptide 1 neurons in the caudal nucleus of the solitary tract in rats","volume":"220","author":"Zheng","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6163","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.23-15-06163.2003","article-title":"CNS glucagon-like peptide-1 receptors mediate endocrine and anxiety responses to interoceptive and psychogenic stressors","volume":"23","author":"Kinzig","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4445","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.138.10.5270","article-title":"Central administration of glucagon-like peptide-1 activates hypothalamic neuroendocrine neurons in the rat","volume":"138","author":"Larsen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2006.06.090","article-title":"Central glucagon like peptide-1 delays solid gastric emptying via central CRF and peripheral sympathetic pathway in rats","volume":"1111","author":"Nakade","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/S0278-5846(01)00223-8","article-title":"Anxiogenic-like action of centrally administered glucagon-like peptide-1 in a punished drinking test","volume":"26","author":"Moller","year":"2002","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"697","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2012.05.010","article-title":"Social vs. environmental stress models of depression from a behavioural and neurochemical approach","volume":"23","author":"Venzala","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2016.02.041","article-title":"Depressive- and anxiety-like behaviors and stress-related neuronal activation in vasopressin-deficient female Brattleboro rats","volume":"158","author":"Fodor","year":"2016","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1442","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9568.2011.07863.x","article-title":"Social defeat stress induces hyperthermia through activation of thermoregulatory sympathetic premotor neurons in the medullary raphe region","volume":"34","author":"Lkhagvasuren","year":"2011","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"346","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2014.05.018","article-title":"Psychological stress activates a dorsomedial hypothalamus-medullary raphe circuit driving brown adipose tissue thermogenesis and hyperthermia","volume":"20","author":"Kataoka","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2018.05.064","article-title":"A Glutamatergic Hypothalamomedullary Circuit Mediates Thermogenesis, but Not Heat Conservation, during Stress-Induced Hyperthermia","volume":"28","author":"Machado","year":"2018","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"700","DOI":"10.1080\/10253890.2020.1812574","article-title":"Stress-induced expression pattern of glutamate signaling genes associated with anhedonia","volume":"23","author":"Dygalo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Stress"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e15448","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.15448","article-title":"Repeated social defeat stress enhances glutamatergic synaptic plasticity in the VTA and cocaine place conditioning","volume":"5","author":"Stelly","year":"2016","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.12617","article-title":"Stress augments the rewarding memory of cocaine via the activation of brainstem-reward circuitry","volume":"24","author":"Shinohara","year":"2019","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2009.01.070","article-title":"Stress-induced, glucocorticoid-dependent strengthening of glutamatergic synaptic transmission in midbrain dopamine neurons","volume":"452","author":"Daftary","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jchemneu.2003.10.002","article-title":"The human raphe nuclei and the serotonergic system","volume":"26","author":"Hornung","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Chem. Neuroanat."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/0361-9230(83)90045-X","article-title":"Monoamine distribution in primate brain V. Monoaminergic nuclei: Anatomy, pathways and local organization","volume":"10","author":"Felten","year":"1983","journal-title":"Brain Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"963","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-4522(95)00415-7","article-title":"Origin of projections from the midbrain raphe nuclei to the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus in the rat: A combined retrograde and anterograde tracing study","volume":"70","author":"Larsen","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0891-0618(97)00019-7","article-title":"Afferent projections to the rat nuclei raphe magnus, raphe pallidus and reticularis gigantocellularis pars alpha demonstrated by iontophoretic application of choleratoxin (subunit b)","volume":"13","author":"Hermann","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Chem. Neuroanat"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1096-9861(19990517)407:4<555::AID-CNE7>3.0.CO;2-E","article-title":"Projections of the median raphe nucleus in the rat","volume":"407","author":"Vertes","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Comp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"643","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.903130409","article-title":"A PHA-L analysis of ascending projections of the dorsal raphe nucleus in the rat","volume":"313","author":"Vertes","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Comp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2019.00565","article-title":"Whole-Brain Mapping of Monosynaptic Afferent Inputs to Cortical CRH Neurons","volume":"13","author":"Zhang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2441","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1460-9568.2002.02400.x","article-title":"Forced swim stress activates rat hippocampal serotonergic neurotransmission involving a corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor-dependent mechanism","volume":"16","author":"Linthorst","year":"2002","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4328(03)00133-5","article-title":"Low doses of corticotropin-releasing hormone injected into the dorsal raphe nucleus block the behavioral consequences of uncontrollable stress","volume":"147","author":"Hammack","year":"2003","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"721","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-018-0254-y","article-title":"Manipulation of dorsal raphe serotonergic neurons modulates active coping to inescapable stress and anxiety-related behaviors in mice and rats","volume":"44","author":"Nishitani","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.23-03-01019.2003","article-title":"Corticotropin releasing hormone type 2 receptors in the dorsal raphe nucleus mediate the behavioral consequences of uncontrollable stress","volume":"23","author":"Hammack","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1122","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2826.2003.01108.x","article-title":"Monoaminergic activity in subregions of raphe nuclei elicited by prior stress and the neuropeptide corticotropin-releasing factor","volume":"15","author":"Summers","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2011.09.011","article-title":"Swim stress activates serotonergic and nonserotonergic neurons in specific subdivisions of the rat dorsal raphe nucleus in a temperature-dependent manner","volume":"197","author":"Kelly","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2009.08.082","article-title":"Restraint stress activates nesfatin-1-immunoreactive brain nuclei in rats","volume":"1300","author":"Goebel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresbull.2011.09.018","article-title":"Activation of GABAA or 5HT1A receptors in the raphe pallidus abolish the cardiovascular responses to exogenous stress in conscious rats","volume":"86","author":"Cockburn","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brain Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijdevneu.2015.04.008","article-title":"Effect of prenatal stress on memory, nicotine withdrawal and 5HT1A expression in raphe nuclei of adult rats","volume":"43","author":"Said","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. J. Dev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.3109\/10253890.2016.1160281","article-title":"Reversible inactivation of rostral nucleus raphe pallidus attenuates acute autonomic responses but not their habituation to repeated audiogenic stress in rats","volume":"19","author":"Nyhuis","year":"2016","journal-title":"Stress"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-8993(03)02981-0","article-title":"Disinhibition of rostral raphe pallidus neurons increases cardiac sympathetic nerve activity and heart rate","volume":"980","author":"Cao","year":"2003","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1002\/syn.10086","article-title":"Conditioned-fear stress increases Fos expression in monoaminergic and GABAergic neurons of the locus coeruleus and dorsal raphe nuclei","volume":"45","author":"Ishida","year":"2002","journal-title":"Synapse"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.resp.2013.04.008","article-title":"Serotonergic neurons in the nucleus raphe obscurus are not involved in the ventilatory and thermoregulatory responses to hypoxia in adult rats","volume":"187","author":"Giusti","year":"2013","journal-title":"Respir. Physiol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1096-9861(19970127)377:4<509::AID-CNE3>3.0.CO;2-6","article-title":"Stress-induced activation of nitric oxide-producing neurons in the rat brain","volume":"377","author":"Krukoff","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Comp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"873","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2013.10.013","article-title":"Sex differences in corticotropin-releasing factor receptor-1 action within the dorsal raphe nucleus in stress responsivity","volume":"75","author":"Howerton","year":"2014","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1037\/bne0000374","article-title":"Regulation of maternal care by corticotropin-releasing factor receptors in the dorsal raphe nucleus in mice","volume":"135","author":"Kijima","year":"2021","journal-title":"Behav. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"278","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3223(03)00788-1","article-title":"Immobilization stress elevates tryptophan hydroxylase mRNA and protein in the rat raphe nuclei","volume":"55","author":"Chamas","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-013-8413-y","article-title":"Downregulation of serotonergic gene expression in the Raphe nuclei of the midbrain under chronic social defeat stress in male mice","volume":"48","author":"Boyarskikh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-3940(76)90059-8","article-title":"Inhibitory action of midbrain raphe stimulation on stress-induced elevation of plasma corticosterone level in rats","volume":"3","author":"Kovacs","year":"1976","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"901","DOI":"10.1177\/0269881120936467","article-title":"Attenuation of stress-induced behavioral changes by activation of serotonin type 7 receptors in the median raphe nucleus of rats","volume":"34","author":"Padovan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Psychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1017\/S1092852914000613","article-title":"Modulating the serotonin system in the treatment of major depressive disorder","volume":"19","author":"Morrissette","year":"2014","journal-title":"CNS Spectr."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2017.142","article-title":"Social Learning Requires Plasticity Enhanced by Fluoxetine Through Prefrontal Bdnf-TrkB Signaling to Limit Aggression Induced by Post-Weaning Social Isolation","volume":"43","author":"Mikics","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.3389\/fnana.2017.00098","article-title":"Systematic Morphometry of Catecholamine Nuclei in the Brainstem","volume":"11","author":"Bucci","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Neuroanat."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1159\/000126570","article-title":"Effects of discrete lesions in the ventral noradrenergic ascending bundle on the corticotropic stress response depend on the site of the lesion and on the plasma levels of adrenal steroids","volume":"58","author":"Gaillet","year":"1993","journal-title":"Neuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1143","DOI":"10.1046\/j.0953-816x.2001.01733.x","article-title":"Stressor categorization: Acute physical and psychological stressors elicit distinctive recruitment patterns in the amygdala and in medullary noradrenergic cell groups","volume":"14","author":"Dayas","year":"2001","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2826.2010.01988.x","article-title":"The brainstem noradrenergic systems in stress, anxiety and depression","volume":"22","author":"Itoi","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"194","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2007.11.062","article-title":"Convergent regulation of locus coeruleus activity as an adaptive response to stress","volume":"583","author":"Valentino","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"468","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2015.07.022","article-title":"Norepinephrine and Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone: Partners in the Neural Circuits that Underpin Stress and Anxiety","volume":"87","author":"Sun","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2825","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3422-03.2004","article-title":"Dopamine release in response to a psychological stress in humans and its relationship to early life maternal care: A positron emission tomography study using [11C]raclopride","volume":"24","author":"Pruessner","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neurosci"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e46797","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.46797","article-title":"The effects of psychosocial stress on dopaminergic function and the acute stress response","volume":"8","author":"Bloomfield","year":"2019","journal-title":"Elife"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1879","DOI":"10.1038\/s12276-020-00532-4","article-title":"Stress and the dopaminergic reward system","volume":"52","author":"Baik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Exp. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.1998.78.1.189","article-title":"Dopamine receptors: From structure to function","volume":"78","author":"Missale","year":"1998","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_137","first-page":"20142516","article-title":"Regulation of dopamine system responsivity and its adaptive and pathological response to stress","volume":"282","author":"Belujon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Proc. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(93)90302-T","article-title":"Elevated plasma dopamine in posttraumatic stress disorder: A preliminary report","volume":"33","author":"Hamner","year":"1993","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"854","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00854","article-title":"Dopamine system: Manager of neural pathways","volume":"7","author":"Hong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Hum. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_140","first-page":"802","article-title":"The pathogenesis of Parkinson\u2019s disease: A new hypothesis","volume":"87","author":"Barbeau","year":"1962","journal-title":"Can. Med. Assoc. J."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yfrne.2009.10.004","article-title":"Metabolic hormones, dopamine circuits, and feeding","volume":"31","author":"Narayanan","year":"2010","journal-title":"Front. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2177","DOI":"10.1177\/0271678X15615535","article-title":"The role of the mesolimbic dopamine system in the formation of blood-oxygen-level dependent responses in the medial prefrontal\/anterior cingulate cortex during high-frequency stimulation of the rat perforant pathway","volume":"36","author":"Helbing","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2016.00480","article-title":"A Trigger for Opioid Misuse: Chronic Pain and Stress Dysregulate the Mesolimbic Pathway and Kappa Opioid System","volume":"10","author":"Massaly","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sogabe, S., Yagasaki, Y., Onozawa, K., and Kawakami, Y. (2013). Mesocortical dopamine system modulates mechanical nociceptive responses recorded in the rat prefrontal cortex. BMC Neurosci., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2202-14-65"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"803","DOI":"10.1002\/bjs.1800770727","article-title":"Manovolumetric and sensory characteristics of the ileoanal J pouch compared with healthy rectum","volume":"77","author":"Oresland","year":"1990","journal-title":"Br. J. Surg."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4229","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2633-14.2015","article-title":"Excitation of tuberoinfundibular dopamine neurons by oxytocin: Crosstalk in the control of lactation","volume":"35","author":"Briffaud","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8074","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.0129-12.2012","article-title":"Prolactin regulates tuberoinfundibular dopamine neuron discharge pattern: Novel feedback control mechanisms in the lactotrophic axis","volume":"32","author":"Lyons","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-4530(81)90044-5","article-title":"Tuberoinfundibular dopamine neurons and the regulation of prolactin secretion","volume":"6","author":"Gudelsky","year":"1981","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2015.07.008","article-title":"The dopaminergic response to acute stress in health and psychopathology: A systematic review","volume":"56","author":"Vaessen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-0173(98)00019-8","article-title":"What is the role of dopamine in reward: Hedonic impact, reward learning, or incentive salience?","volume":"28","author":"Berridge","year":"1998","journal-title":"Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/S0149-7634(96)00017-6","article-title":"Behavioral functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine: Empirical and conceptual problems with the anhedonia hypothesis","volume":"21","author":"Salamone","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/S0165-6147(97)01115-2","article-title":"The role of stress in drug self-administration","volume":"19","author":"Piazza","year":"1998","journal-title":"Trends Pharmacol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9253083","DOI":"10.1155\/2018\/9253083","article-title":"Stress-Induced Hyperprolactinemia: Pathophysiology and Clinical Approach","volume":"2018","author":"Levine","year":"2018","journal-title":"Obstet Gynecol. Int."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1159\/000292063","article-title":"Acute and chronic stress and the inflammatory response in hyperprolactinemic rats","volume":"17","author":"Malucelli","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuroimmunomodulation"},{"key":"ref_155","first-page":"56","article-title":"Prolactin Promotes Adipose Tissue Fitness and Insulin Sensitivity in Obese Males","volume":"158","author":"Diaz","year":"2017","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1507\/endocrj.K07-003","article-title":"Physiological roles of prolactin in the adrenocortical response to acute restraint stress","volume":"54","author":"Jaroenporn","year":"2007","journal-title":"Endocr. J."},{"key":"ref_157","first-page":"6","article-title":"Brain corticotropin releasing hormone and stress reactivity","volume":"2","author":"Chaves","year":"2021","journal-title":"Integrativnaja Physiologija"},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2547","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.134.6.8194481","article-title":"Differential expression of corticotropin-releasing hormone in developing mouse embryos and adult brain","volume":"134","author":"Keegan","year":"1994","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-0115(82)90107-0","article-title":"Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF): Immunoreactive neurones and fibers in rat hypothalamus","volume":"4","author":"Bloom","year":"1982","journal-title":"Regul. Pept."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2011.07.024","article-title":"Comparison of CRF-immunoreactive neurons distribution in mouse and rat brains and selective induction of Fos in rat hypothalamic CRF neurons by abdominal surgery","volume":"1415","author":"Wang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_161","first-page":"423","article-title":"Corticotropin-releasing hormone expression in supraoptic neurons after bilateral lesioning of the paraventricular nucleus in rats","volume":"5","author":"Palkovits","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neurobiology"},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7681","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.90.16.7681","article-title":"Mediation of osmoregulatory influences on neuroendocrine corticotropin-releasing factor expression by the ventral lamina terminalis","volume":"90","author":"Kovacs","year":"1993","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wamsteeker Cusulin, J.I., Fuzesi, T., Watts, A.G., and Bains, J.S. (2013). Characterization of corticotropin-releasing hormone neurons in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus of Crh-IRES-Cre mutant mice. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0064943"},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5626","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2009-0881","article-title":"Transgenic mice expressing green fluorescent protein under the control of the corticotropin-releasing hormone promoter","volume":"150","author":"Alon","year":"2009","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1705","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-016-1303-0","article-title":"Distribution of corticotropin-releasing factor neurons in the mouse brain: A study using corticotropin-releasing factor-modified yellow fluorescent protein knock-in mouse","volume":"222","author":"Kono","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.3389\/fnana.2017.00063","article-title":"A Quantitative Analysis of the Distribution of CRH Neurons in Whole Mouse Brain","volume":"11","author":"Peng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Neuroanat."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"880","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2826.2004.01246.x","article-title":"Distribution and acute stressor-induced activation of corticotrophin-releasing hormone neurones in the central nervous system of Xenopus laevis","volume":"16","author":"Yao","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Neuroendocrinol."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"324","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.mp.4001250","article-title":"Increased corticotropin-releasing hormone immunoreactivity in monoamine-containing pontine nuclei of depressed suicide men","volume":"8","author":"Austin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00342.2019","article-title":"Cholinergic modulation of CRH and non-CRH neurons in Barrington\u2019s nucleus of the mouse","volume":"124","author":"Kawatani","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-9384(02)00927-7","article-title":"The locus coeruleus, Barrington\u2019s nucleus, and neural circuits of stress","volume":"77","author":"Sved","year":"2002","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112796","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2019.112796","article-title":"Exercise modulates neuronal activation in the micturition circuit of chronically stressed rats: A multidisciplinary approach to the study of urologic chronic pelvic pain syndrome (MAPP) research network study","volume":"215","author":"Holschneider","year":"2020","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2017.09.020","article-title":"Murine social stress results in long lasting voiding dysfunction","volume":"183","author":"Butler","year":"2018","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R940","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpregu.00257.2012","article-title":"A corticotropin-releasing factor receptor antagonist improves urodynamic dysfunction produced by social stress or partial bladder outlet obstruction in male rats","volume":"304","author":"Wood","year":"2013","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. Comp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.3389\/fncir.2013.00094","article-title":"Role of the olivo-cerebellar complex in motor learning and control","volume":"7","author":"Schweighofer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Neural. Circuits"},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1139\/y98-027","article-title":"Pattern of c-fos mRNA induction in rat brain by acute morphine","volume":"76","author":"Gutstein","year":"1998","journal-title":"Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1258","DOI":"10.1212\/01.WNL.0000140498.24112.8C","article-title":"Damage to the reticulotegmental nucleus of the pons in spinocerebellar ataxia type 1, 2, and 3","volume":"63","author":"Rub","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1692","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00846.2018","article-title":"Central mesencephalic reticular formation control of the near response: Lens accommodation circuits","volume":"121","author":"May","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neurophysiol."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2018.03.007","article-title":"The Parabrachial Nucleus: CGRP Neurons Function as a General Alarm","volume":"41","author":"Palmiter","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e18749","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.18749","article-title":"Gating of reafference in the external cuneate nucleus during self-generated movements in wake but not sleep","volume":"5","author":"Tiriac","year":"2016","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-2236(99)01446-0","article-title":"Binding of signals relevant for action: Towards a hypothesis of the functional role of the pontine nuclei","volume":"22","author":"Schwarz","year":"1999","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1002\/1520-6394(2000)12:2<99::AID-DA6>3.0.CO;2-Q","article-title":"Anxiolytic effect of a CRH receptor antagonist in the dorsal periaqueductal gray","volume":"12","author":"Martins","year":"2000","journal-title":"Depress. Anxiety"},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3601","DOI":"10.1097\/00001756-199711100-00036","article-title":"Anxiogenic effect of corticotropin-releasing hormone in the dorsal periaqueductal grey","volume":"8","author":"Martins","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neuroreport"},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-016-1217-x","article-title":"Cellular architecture and transmitter phenotypes of neurons of the mouse median raphe region","volume":"222","author":"Sos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1271","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2009.229","article-title":"The serotonergic projection from the median raphe nucleus to the ventral hippocampus is involved in the retrieval of fear memory through the corticotropin-releasing factor type 2 receptor","volume":"35","author":"Ohmura","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1020","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.22-03-01020.2002","article-title":"The role of corticotropin-releasing hormone in the dorsal raphe nucleus in mediating the behavioral consequences of uncontrollable stress","volume":"22","author":"Hammack","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eaaw0445","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaw0445","article-title":"Brainstem nucleus incertus controls contextual memory formation","volume":"364","author":"Szonyi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1326","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2011.02.004","article-title":"Nucleus incertus\u2014An emerging modulatory role in arousal, stress and memory","volume":"35","author":"Ryan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1142","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.20-03-01142.2000","article-title":"Do centrally administered neuropeptides access cognate receptors?: An analysis in the central corticotropin-releasing factor system","volume":"20","author":"Bittencourt","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-8993(02)04086-6","article-title":"Activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis following vestibular deafferentation in pigmented guinea pig","volume":"964","author":"Gliddon","year":"2003","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-008-0172-6","article-title":"Projections from the vestibular nuclei to the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus: Morphological evidence for the existence of a vestibular stress pathway in the rat brain","volume":"213","author":"Markia","year":"2008","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref_191","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sherafat, Y., Bautista, M., Fowler, J.P., Chen, E., Ahmed, A., and Fowler, C.D. (2020). The Interpeduncular-Ventral Hippocampus Pathway Mediates Active Stress Coping and Natural Reward. eNeuro, 7.","DOI":"10.1523\/ENEURO.0191-20.2020"},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-017-0543-8","article-title":"Regulation of Hypothalamo-Pituitary-Adrenocortical Responses to Stressors by the Nucleus of the Solitary Tract\/Dorsal Vagal Complex","volume":"38","author":"Herman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Mol. Neurobiol."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/22\/16\/9090\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T06:49:56Z","timestamp":1760165396000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/22\/16\/9090"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,23]]},"references-count":192,"journal-issue":{"issue":"16","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms22169090"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms22169090","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,23]]}}}