{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,16]],"date-time":"2026-06-16T07:01:00Z","timestamp":1781593260170,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":129,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,27]],"date-time":"2021-08-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1630022400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental hypotheses represent the basic etiological framework for the origin of schizophrenia. Additionally, the dopamine hypothesis, adopted more than two decades ago, has repeatedly asserted the position of dopamine as a pathobiochemical substrate through the action of psychostimulants and neuroleptics on the mesolimbic and mesocortical systems, giving insight into the origin of positive and negative schizophrenic symptoms. Meanwhile, cognitive impairments in schizophrenia remain incompletely understood but are thought to be present during all stages of the disease, as well as in the prodromal, interictal and residual phases. On the other hand, observations on the effects of NMDA antagonists, such as ketamine and phencyclidine, reveal that hypoglutamatergic neurotransmission causes not only positive and negative but also cognitive schizophrenic symptoms. This review aims to summarize the different hypotheses about the origin of psychoses and to identify the optimal neuroimaging method that can serve to unite them in an integral etiological framework. We systematically searched Google scholar (with no concern to the date published) to identify studies investigating the etiology of schizophrenia, with a focus on impaired central neurotransmission. The complex interaction between the dopamine and glutamate neurotransmitter systems provides the long-needed etiological concept, which combines the neurodegenerative hypothesis with the hypothesis of impaired neurodevelopment in schizophrenia. Pharmaco-magnetic resonance imaging is a neuroimaging method that can provide a translation of scientific knowledge about the neural networks and the disruptions in and between different brain regions, into clinically applicable and effective therapeutic results in the management of severe psychotic disorders.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22179309","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,27]],"date-time":"2021-08-27T09:53:23Z","timestamp":1630058003000},"page":"9309","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Pharmaco-Magnetic Resonance as a Tool for Monitoring the Medication-Related Effects in the Brain May Provide Potential Biomarkers for Psychotic Disorders"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3732-3770","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katrin","family":"Aryutova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology, Research Institute, Medical University Plovdiv, 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9975-3680","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Drozdstoy","family":"Stoyanov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology, Research Institute, Medical University Plovdiv, 4002 Plovdiv, Bulgaria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,8,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.31887\/DCNS.2015.17.1\/wgaebel","article-title":"Focus on psychosis","volume":"17","author":"Gaebel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Dialog. 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