{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,19]],"date-time":"2026-09-19T16:24:20Z","timestamp":1789835060574,"version":"4.0.1"},"reference-count":87,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,28]],"date-time":"2021-09-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1632787200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>For a yet unknown reason, a substantial share of patients suffering from COVID-19 develop long-lasting neuropsychiatric symptoms ranging from cognitive deficits to mood disorders and\/or an extreme fatigue. We previously reported that in non-neural cells, angiotensin-1 converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), the gene coding for the SARS-CoV2 host receptor, harbors tight co-expression links with dopa-decarboxylase (DDC), an enzyme involved in the metabolism of dopamine. Here, we mined and integrated data from distinct human expression atlases and found that, among a wide range of tissues and cells, enterocytes of the small intestine express the highest expression levels of ACE2, DDC and several key genes supporting the metabolism of neurotransmitters. Based on these results, we performed co-expression analyses on a recently published set of RNA-seq data obtained from SARS-CoV2-infected human intestinal organoids. We observed that in SARS-CoV2-infected enterocytes, ACE2 co-regulates not only with DDC but also with a specific group of genes involved in (i) the dopamine\/trace amines metabolic pathway, (ii) the absorption of microbiota-derived L-DOPA and (iii) the absorption of neutral amino acids serving as precursors to neurotransmitters. We conclude that in patients with long COVID, a chronic infection and inflammation of small intestine enterocytes might be indirectly responsible for prolonged brain alterations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms221910440","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,28]],"date-time":"2021-09-28T21:38:09Z","timestamp":1632865089000},"page":"10440","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":32,"title":["Molecular Insights into SARS-CoV2-Induced Alterations of the Gut\/Brain Axis"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Serge","family":"Nataf","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"INSERM, Stem Cell and Brain Research Institute U1208, Univ Lyon, Universit\u00e9 Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 69500 Bron, France"},{"name":"Bank of Tissues and Cells, Lyon University Hospital (Hospices Civils de Lyon), 69003 Lyon, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0720-2273","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laurent","family":"Pays","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"INSERM, Stem Cell and Brain Research Institute U1208, Univ Lyon, Universit\u00e9 Claude Bernard Lyon 1, 69500 Bron, France"},{"name":"Bank of Tissues and Cells, Lyon University Hospital (Hospices Civils de Lyon), 69003 Lyon, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(20)30462-4","article-title":"Bidirectional associations between COVID-19 and psychiatric disorder: Retrospective cohort studies of 62 354 COVID-19 cases in the USA","volume":"8","author":"Taquet","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2268","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMc2008597","article-title":"Neurologic Features in Severe SARS-CoV-2 Infection","volume":"382","author":"Helms","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/S2213-2600(20)30552-X","article-title":"Prevalence and risk factors for delirium in critically ill patients with COVID-19 (COVID-D): A multicentre cohort study","volume":"9","author":"Pun","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Respir. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1002\/acn3.51350","article-title":"Persistent neurologic symptoms and cognitive dysfunction in non-hospitalized COVID-19 \u201clong haulers\u201d","volume":"8","author":"Graham","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Transl. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577529","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2021.577529","article-title":"Neuropsychiatric and Cognitive Sequelae of COVID-19","volume":"12","author":"Kumar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(21)00084-5","article-title":"6-month neurological and psychiatric outcomes in 236 379 survivors of COVID-19: A retrospective cohort study using electronic health records","volume":"8","author":"Taquet","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"484","DOI":"10.1038\/d41586-021-01693-6","article-title":"COVID and the brain: Researchers zero in on how damage occurs","volume":"595","author":"Marshall","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.stem.2020.12.018","article-title":"ApoE-Isoform-Dependent SARS-CoV-2 Neurotropism and Cellular Response","volume":"28","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cell Stem Cell"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25728","article-title":"The neuroinvasive potential of SARS-CoV2 may play a role in the respiratory failure of COVID-19 patients","volume":"92","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabf8396","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.abf8396","article-title":"COVID-19-related anosmia is associated with viral persistence and inflammation in human olfactory epithelium and brain infection in hamsters","volume":"13","author":"Lazarini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.04.027","article-title":"Are we facing a crashing wave of neuropsychiatric sequelae of COVID-19? Neuropsychiatric symptoms and potential immunologic mechanisms","volume":"87","author":"Troyer","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain. Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbi.2020.05.038","article-title":"Immediate psychological distress in quarantined patients with COVID-19 and its association with peripheral inflammation: A mixed-method study","volume":"88","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain. Behav. Immun."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thakur, K.T., Miller, E.H., Glendinning, M.D., Al-Dalahmah, O., Banu, M.A., Boehme, A.K., Boubour, A.L., Bruce, S.S., Chong, A.M., and Claassen, J. (2021). COVID-19 neuropathology at Columbia University Irving Medical Center\/New York Presbyterian Hospital. Brain, awab148. in press.","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awab148"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qin, Y., Wu, J., Chen, T., Li, J., Zhang, G., Wu, D., Zhou, Y., Zheng, N., Cai, A., and Ning, Q. (2021). Long-term microstructure and cerebral blood flow changes in patients recovered from COVID-19 without neurological manifestations. J. Clin. Investig., 131.","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI147329"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1895","DOI":"10.1161\/STROKEAHA.120.032711","article-title":"Endothelial dysfunction in the brain: Setting the stage for stroke and other cerebrovascular complications of COVID-19","volume":"52","author":"Sashindranath","year":"2021","journal-title":"Stroke"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4188","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-021-02457-z","article-title":"COVID-19 Infection and Circulating Microparticles\u2014Reviewing Evidence as Microthrombogenic Risk Factor for Cerebral Small Vessel Disease","volume":"58","author":"Hashim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1743","DOI":"10.1002\/jmv.25826","article-title":"An alteration of the dopamine synthetic pathway is possibly involved in the pathophysiology of COVID-19","volume":"92","author":"Nataf","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Med. Virol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-3623(94)00223-A","article-title":"Aromatic l-amino acid decarboxylase: Biological characterization and functional role","volume":"26","author":"Zhu","year":"1995","journal-title":"Gen. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabc3582","DOI":"10.1126\/sciimmunol.abc3582","article-title":"TMPRSS2 and TMPRSS4 promote SARS-CoV-2 infection of human small intestinal enterocytes","volume":"5","author":"Zang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2020.04.027","article-title":"Specific ACE2 expression in small intestinal enterocytes may cause gastrointestinal symptoms and injury after 2019-nCoV infection","volume":"96","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1002\/path.1570","article-title":"Tissue distribution of ACE2 protein, the functional receptor for SARS coronavirus. A first step in understanding SARS pathogenesis","volume":"203","author":"Hamming","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"872","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2008.10.055","article-title":"Tissue-specific amino acid transporter partners ACE2 and collectrin differentially interact with hartnup mutations","volume":"136","author":"Camargo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1049","DOI":"10.1210\/en.2016-1839","article-title":"The diverse metabolic roles of peripheral serotonin","volume":"158","author":"Martin","year":"2017","journal-title":"Endocrinology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"344","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(21)00076-5","article-title":"Gastrointestinal sequelae 90 days after discharge for COVID-19","volume":"6","author":"Weng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2435","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2021.02.056","article-title":"Intestinal Host Response to SARS-CoV-2 Infection and COVID-19 Outcomes in Patients with Gastrointestinal Symptoms","volume":"160","author":"Livanos","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-021-03207-w","article-title":"Evolution of antibody immunity to SARS-CoV-2","volume":"591","author":"Gaebler","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11228","article-title":"ACE2 links amino acid malnutrition to microbial ecology and intestinal inflammation","volume":"487","author":"Hashimoto","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1038\/s41564-018-0337-x","article-title":"The neuroactive potential of the human gut microbiota in quality of life and depression","volume":"4","author":"Falony","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1151","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2020.05.030","article-title":"Age, Inflammation, and Disease Location Are Critical Determinants of Intestinal Expression of SARS-CoV-2 Receptor ACE2 and TMPRSS2 in Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"159","author":"Nowak","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"809","DOI":"10.1053\/j.gastro.2020.10.041","article-title":"Altered Intestinal ACE2 Levels Are Associated with Inflammation, Severe Disease, and Response to Anti-Cytokine Therapy in Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"160","author":"Potdar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gastroenterology"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1093\/ecco-jcc\/jjaa185","article-title":"Intestinal Receptor of SARS-CoV-2 in Inflamed IBD Tissue Seems Downregulated by HNF4A in Ileum and Upregulated by Interferon Regulating Factors in Colon","volume":"15","author":"Verstockt","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Crohns. Colitis"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1016\/S2468-1253(21)00014-5","article-title":"Prevalence of symptoms of anxiety and depression in patients with inflammatory bowel disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"6","author":"Barberio","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"360","DOI":"10.1093\/ibd\/izy235","article-title":"Increased Burden of Psychiatric Disorders in Inflammatory Bowel Disease","volume":"25","author":"Bernstein","year":"2019","journal-title":"Inflamm. Bowel Dis."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abc1669","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 productively infects human gut enterocytes","volume":"369","author":"Lamers","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Song, W., Wang, J., Wang, T., Xiong, X., Qi, Z., Fu, W., Yang, X., and Chen, Y.-G. (2020). Single-cell transcriptome analysis reveals differential nutrient absorption functions in human intestine. J. Exp. Med., 217.","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20191130"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20191130","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20191997","article-title":"Atlas of the human intestine","volume":"217","author":"He","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2019.00445","article-title":"The NCATS BioPlanet\u2014An integrated platform for exploring the universe of cellular signaling pathways for toxicology, systems biology, and chemical genomics","volume":"10","author":"Huang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2523","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem.84.7.5864","article-title":"Sources and physiological significance of plasma dopamine sulfate","volume":"84","author":"Goldstein","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1002\/1531-8257(200001)15:1<164::AID-MDS1028>3.0.CO;2-E","article-title":"Broad bean (Vicia faba)\u2014A natural source of L-dopa\u2014Prolongs \u201con\u201d periods in patients with Parkinson\u2019s disease who have \u201con-off\u201d fluctuations","volume":"15","author":"Apaydin","year":"2000","journal-title":"Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jep.2014.11.008","article-title":"Banana (Musa spp.) from peel to pulp: Ethnopharmacology, source of bioactive compounds and its relevance for human health","volume":"160","author":"Pereira","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Ethnopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"432","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000004175","article-title":"Mucuna pruriens in Parkinson disease: A double-blind, randomized, controlled, crossover study","volume":"89","author":"Cilia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"50","article-title":"Herbs containing L\u2014Dopa: An update","volume":"27","author":"Ramya","year":"2007","journal-title":"Anc. Sci. Life"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"838","DOI":"10.1006\/bbrc.1998.9232","article-title":"Dopamine formation from tyramine by CYP2D6","volume":"249","author":"Hiroi","year":"1998","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1065","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-2952(63)90080-7","article-title":"The uptake of tryptamine by brain in vivo and its alteration by drugs","volume":"12","author":"Pletscher","year":"1963","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"970","DOI":"10.2967\/jnumed.110.083246","article-title":"In vivo long-term kinetics of radiolabeled N,N-dimethyltryptamine and tryptamine","volume":"52","author":"Vitale","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Nucl. Med."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1629","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplegacy.1971.221.6.1629","article-title":"Brain uptake of radiolabeled amino acids, amines, and hexoses after arterial injection","volume":"221","author":"Oldendorf","year":"1971","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2019.03.036","article-title":"A Forward Chemical Genetic Screen Reveals Gut Microbiota Metabolites That Modulate Host Physiology","volume":"177","author":"Chen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1080\/14728222.2018.1480723","article-title":"Trace amine-associated receptor 1: A multimodal therapeutic target for neuropsychiatric diseases","volume":"22","author":"Schwartz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Ther. Targets"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2006.07.003","article-title":"The mysterious trace amines: Protean neuromodulators of synaptic transmission in mammalian brain","volume":"79","author":"Burchett","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"549","DOI":"10.1124\/pr.117.015305","article-title":"Trace amines and their receptors","volume":"70","author":"Gainetdinov","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00426960","article-title":"The contribution of tryptamine to the behavioural effects of l-tryptophan in tranylcypromine-treated rats","volume":"57","author":"Marsden","year":"1978","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00548397","article-title":"Monoamine oxidase inhibition by tranylcypromine: Assessment in human volunteers","volume":"22","author":"Bieck","year":"1982","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1038\/ng1097-206","article-title":"Increased stress response and p-phenylethylamine in maob-def icient mice","volume":"17","author":"Grimsby","year":"1997","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01249880","article-title":"L-deprenyl plus l-phenylalanine in the treatment of depression","volume":"59","author":"Birkmayer","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Neural Transm."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1016\/S0161-813X(03)00103-7","article-title":"Therapeutic Applications of Selective and Non-Selective Inhibitors of Monoamine Oxidase A and B that do not Cause Significant Tyramine Potentiation","volume":"25","author":"Youdim","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurotoxicology"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-386467-3.00009-1","article-title":"Selective inhibitors of monoamine oxidase type B and the \u201ccheese effect\u201d","volume":"100","author":"Finberg","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9658","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-88944-8","article-title":"Association between ACE2 and TMPRSS2 nasopharyngeal expression and COVID-19 respiratory distress","volume":"11","author":"Rossi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593857","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2020.593857","article-title":"Comparative Transcriptome Analysis Reveals the Intensive Early Stage Responses of Host Cells to SARS-CoV-2 Infection","volume":"11","author":"Sun","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1267","article-title":"A crucial role of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in SARS coronavirus-induced lung injury","volume":"11","author":"Kuba","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"G686","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpgi.00140.2012","article-title":"Defective intestinal amino acid absorption in Ace2 null mice","volume":"303","author":"Singer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Gastrointest. Liver Physiol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1323","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-018-2679-4","article-title":"ACE2 in Brain Physiology and Pathophysiology: Evidence from Transgenic Animal Models","volume":"44","author":"Alenina","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1976.00500120001001","article-title":"Hartnup Disease: Clinical, Pathological, and Biochemical Observations","volume":"33","author":"Tahmoush","year":"1976","journal-title":"Arch. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673600","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2021.673600","article-title":"Inborn Errors of Metabolism Associated with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Approaches to Intervention","volume":"15","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-019-0406-4","article-title":"Opposite effects of dopamine and serotonin on resting-state networks: Review and implications for psychiatric disorders","volume":"25","author":"Conio","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1007\/s10571-019-00743-y","article-title":"Molecular Variants in Human Trace Amine-Associated Receptors and Their Implications in Mental and Metabolic Disorders","volume":"40","author":"Rutigliano","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1177\/1073858417714226","article-title":"A Brain on a Roller Coaster: Can the Dopamine Reward System Act as a Protagonist to Subdue the Ups and Downs of Bipolar Disorder?","volume":"24","author":"Arjmand","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuroscientist"},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1198","DOI":"10.1038\/2031198a0","article-title":"Variations of urinary creatinine and its correlation to tryptamine excretion in schizophrenic patients","volume":"203","author":"Berlet","year":"1964","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/0278-5846(94)90024-8","article-title":"Phenylethylamine and schizophrenia","volume":"18","author":"Davis","year":"1994","journal-title":"Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2018.12.004","article-title":"Schizophrenia, Dopamine and the Striatum: From Biology to Symptoms","volume":"42","author":"McCutcheon","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Acharya, S., and Kim, K.M. (2021). Roles of the functional interaction between brain cholinergic and dopaminergic systems in the pathogenesis and treatment of schizophrenia and Parkinson\u2019s disease. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22094299"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e140327","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.140327","article-title":"COVID-19 infection alters kynurenine and fatty acid metabolism, correlating with IL-6 levels and renal status","volume":"5","author":"Thomas","year":"2020","journal-title":"JCI Insight"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2020.06.016","article-title":"Omics-Driven Systems Interrogation of Metabolic Dysregulation in COVID-19 Pathogenesis","volume":"32","author":"Song","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_73","first-page":"2734","article-title":"Sulfation of Thyroid Hormone and Dopamine during Human Development: Ontogeny of Phenol Sulfotransferases and Arylsulfatase in Liver, Lung, and Brain 1","volume":"86","author":"Richard","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1038\/s41392-020-00456-5","article-title":"Oral berberine improves brain dopa\/dopamine levels to ameliorate Parkinson\u2019s disease by regulating gut microbiota","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Signal. Transduct. Target. Ther."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1124\/jpet.114.216317","article-title":"The molecular mechanism of intestinal levodopa absorption and its possible implications for the treatment of Parkinson\u2019s disease","volume":"351","author":"Camargo","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"992","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1471-4159.1983.tb08083.x","article-title":"Decarboxylation of p-Tyrosine: A Potential Source of p-Tyramine in Mammalian Tissues","volume":"40","author":"Bowsher","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S32","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.63.7_suppl_2.S32","article-title":"A review of the mechanisms and role of monoamine oxidase inhibitors in Parkinson\u2019s","volume":"63","author":"Youdim","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14033","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.272.22.14033","article-title":"A key amino acid responsible for substrate selectivity of monoamine oxidase A and B","volume":"272","author":"Tsugeno","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-7091-6499-0_5","article-title":"Differential trace amine alterations in individuals receiving acetylenic inhibitors of MAO-A (clorgyline) or MAO-B (selegiline and pargyline)","volume":"52","author":"Murphy","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Neural Transm. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1007\/s00702-018-1925-x","article-title":"Le Tyrosine-hydroxylase immunoreactivity in the mouse transparent brain and adrenal glands","volume":"126","author":"Godefroy","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neural Transm."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1260419","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1260419","article-title":"Tissue-based map of the human proteome","volume":"347","author":"Fagerberg","year":"2015","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"170112","DOI":"10.1038\/sdata.2017.112","article-title":"FANTOM5 CAGE profiles of human and mouse samples","volume":"4","author":"Noguchi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Data"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1038\/ng.2653","article-title":"The Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx) project","volume":"45","author":"Lonsdale","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Genet."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2498","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.1239303","article-title":"Cytoscape: A software Environment for integrated models of biomolecular interaction networks","volume":"13","author":"Shannon","year":"2003","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"W60","DOI":"10.1093\/nar\/gky311","article-title":"GeneMANIA update 2018","volume":"46","author":"Franz","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nataf, S., Barritault, M., and Pays, L. (2017). A unique TGFB1-driven genomic program links astrocytosis, low-grade inflammation and partial demyelination in spinal cord periplaques from progressive multiple sclerosis patients. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 18.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints201708.0080.v1"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100163","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbih.2020.100163","article-title":"Cognitive profile following COVID-19 infection: Clinical predictors leading to neuropsychological impairment","volume":"9","author":"Almeria","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Immun. Heal."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/22\/19\/10440\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:06:10Z","timestamp":1760166370000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/22\/19\/10440"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,28]]},"references-count":87,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,10]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms221910440"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms221910440","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,28]]}}}