{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,12]],"date-time":"2025-10-12T02:30:50Z","timestamp":1760236250208,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":129,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,12]],"date-time":"2021-11-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1636675200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is characterized by important respiratory impairments frequently associated with severe cardiovascular damages. Moreover, patients with pre-existing comorbidity for cardiovascular diseases (CVD) often present a dramatic increase in inflammatory cytokines release, which increases the severity and adverse outcomes of the infection and, finally, mortality risk. Despite this evident association at the clinical level, the mechanisms linking CVD and COVID-19 are still blurry and unresolved. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are functional RNA molecules transcribed from DNA but usually not translated into proteins. They play an important role in the regulation of gene expression, either in relatively stable conditions or as a response to different stimuli, including viral infection, and are therefore considered a possible important target in the design of specific drugs. In this review, we introduce known associations and interactions between COVID-19 and CVD, discussing the role of ncRNAs within SARS-CoV-2 infection from the perspective of the development of efficient pharmacological tools to treat COVID-19 patients and taking into account the equally dramatic associated consequences, such as those affecting the cardiovascular system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222212243","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,12]],"date-time":"2021-11-12T08:10:22Z","timestamp":1636704622000},"page":"12243","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["SARS-CoV-2, Cardiovascular Diseases, and Noncoding RNAs: A Connected Triad"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9725-6576","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucia","family":"Natarelli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Cardiovascular Prevention (IPEK), Ludwig-Maximilians-Universit\u00e4t (LMU), 800336 Munich, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9691-8742","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabio","family":"Virgili","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center for Food and Nutrition, Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, 00178 Rome, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Christian","family":"Weber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute for Cardiovascular Prevention (IPEK), Ludwig-Maximilians-Universit\u00e4t (LMU), 800336 Munich, Germany"},{"name":"German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Munich Heart Alliance, 80336 Munich, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Biochemistry, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht (CARIM), Maastricht University, 6229 HX Maastricht, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Institute for Stroke and Dementia Research, 81377 Munich, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-020-02344-6","article-title":"Emerging SARS-CoV-2 mutation hot spots include a novel RNA-dependent-RNA polymerase variant","volume":"18","author":"Pachetti","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14004","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-70812-6","article-title":"Genome-Wide analysis of SARS-CoV-2 virus strains circulating worldwide implicates heterogeneity","volume":"10","author":"Islam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Brassey, J., Heneghan, C., Mahtani, K.R., and Aronson, J.K. (2021, October 05). Do Weather Conditions Influence the Transmission of the Coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2)? Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine, Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health Sciences; University of Oxford: 2020. Available online: https:\/\/www.cebm.net\/wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/03\/Do-weather-conditions-influence-the-transmission-of-the-novel-coronavirus-2019-nCoV_.pdf."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2016.03.003","article-title":"Epidemiology, Genetic Recombination, and Pathogenesis of Coronaviruses","volume":"24","author":"Su","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105924","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2020.105924","article-title":"Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19): The epidemic and the challenges","volume":"55","author":"Lai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30183-5","article-title":"Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China","volume":"395","author":"Huang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"565","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30251-8","article-title":"Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: Implications for virus origins and receptor binding","volume":"395","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2015.02.025","article-title":"The structure and functions of coronavirus genomic 3\u2032 and 5\u2032 ends","volume":"206","author":"Yang","year":"2015","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1038\/s41586-020-2739-1","article-title":"The coding capacity of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"589","author":"Finkel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.02.058","article-title":"Structure, Function, and Antigenicity of the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Glycoprotein","volume":"181","author":"Walls","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621735","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.621735","article-title":"Infection Mechanism of SARS-COV-2 and Its Implication on the Nervous System","volume":"11","author":"Minjarez","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1724","DOI":"10.7150\/ijbs.45498","article-title":"Targeting the Endocytic Pathway and Autophagy Process as a Novel Therapeutic Strategy in COVID-19","volume":"16","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2163","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.02163","article-title":"Experimental Models for the Study of Central Nervous System Infection by SARS-CoV-2","volume":"11","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1444","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abb2762","article-title":"Structural basis for the recognition of SARS-CoV-2 by full-length human ACE2","volume":"367","author":"Yan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1001\/jamacardio.2020.1017","article-title":"Cardiovascular Implications of Fatal Outcomes of Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19)","volume":"5","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.12897","article-title":"Association Between Universal Masking in a Health Care System and SARS-CoV-2 Positivity Among Health Care Workers","volume":"324","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1054","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30566-3","article-title":"Clinical course and risk factors for mortality of adult inpatients with COVID-19 in Wuhan, China: A retrospective cohort study","volume":"395","author":"Zhou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1038\/s41577-020-0311-8","article-title":"The trinity of COVID-19: Immunity, inflammation and intervention","volume":"20","author":"Tay","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2950","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2020.04.031","article-title":"COVID-19 and Thrombotic or Thromboembolic Disease: Implications for Prevention, Antithrombotic Therapy, and Follow-Up","volume":"75","author":"Bikdeli","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1559","DOI":"10.1111\/jth.14849","article-title":"Thromboinflammation and the hypercoagulability of COVID-19","volume":"18","author":"Connors","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Thromb. Haemost."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2290","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2020.6504","article-title":"Accuracy of the PHQ-2 Alone and in Combination With the PHQ-9 for Screening to Detect Major Depression: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis","volume":"323","author":"Levis","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2801","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.289.21.JOC30885","article-title":"Clinical features and short-term outcomes of 144 patients with SARS in the greater Toronto area","volume":"289","author":"Booth","year":"2003","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijid.2016.06.015","article-title":"Prevalence of comorbidities in the Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV): A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"49","author":"Badawi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1038\/s41569-020-0360-5","article-title":"COVID-19 and the cardiovascular system","volume":"17","author":"Zheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.5144\/0256-4947.2016.78","article-title":"Acute myocarditis associated with novel Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus","volume":"36","author":"Alhogbani","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Saudi Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9110","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-09536-z","article-title":"Altered Lipid Metabolism in Recovered SARS Patients Twelve Years after Infection","volume":"7","author":"Wu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1038\/s41569-020-0413-9","article-title":"COVID-19 and cardiovascular disease: From basic mechanisms to clinical perspectives","volume":"17","author":"Nishiga","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"413","DOI":"10.1038\/nrcardio.2014.59","article-title":"Angiotensin-Converting enzyme 2 and angiotensin 1\u20137: Novel therapeutic targets","volume":"11","author":"Jiang","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"708","article-title":"Myocyte Specific Upregulation of ACE2 in Cardiovascular Disease: Implications for SARS-CoV-2 mediated myocarditis","volume":"142","author":"Tucker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Medrxiv Prepr. Serv. Health Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"514","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(20)30154-9","article-title":"A familial cluster of pneumonia associated with the 2019 novel coronavirus indicating person-to-person transmission: A study of a family cluster","volume":"395","author":"Chan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1798","DOI":"10.1093\/eurheartj\/ehaa231","article-title":"Coronaviruses and the cardiovascular system: Acute and long-term implications","volume":"41","author":"Xiong","year":"2020","journal-title":"Eur. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2362.2009.02153.x","article-title":"SARS-Coronavirus modulation of myocardial ACE2 expression and inflammation in patients with SARS","volume":"39","author":"Oudit","year":"2009","journal-title":"Eur. J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.21037\/ncri.2018.11.03","article-title":"Non-Coding RNA in cardiovascular disease: A general overview on microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs and circular RNAs","volume":"2","author":"Andreassi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Non Coding RNA Investig."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2645","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-05065-z","article-title":"miR-103 promotes endothelial maladaptation by targeting lncWDR59","volume":"9","author":"Natarelli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"564","DOI":"10.1126\/scitranslmed.aaz2294","article-title":"Noncanonical inhibition of caspase-3 by a nuclear microRNA confers endothelial protection by autophagy in atherosclerosis","volume":"12","author":"Santovito","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2009.01.002","article-title":"MicroRNAs: Target Recognition and Regulatory Functions","volume":"136","author":"Bartel","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2007.12.024","article-title":"Getting to the root of miRNA-mediated gene silencing","volume":"132","author":"Eulalio","year":"2008","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2013.06.020","article-title":"lincRNAs: Genomics, evolution, and mechanisms","volume":"154","author":"Ulitsky","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"1354","article-title":"Emerging roles of lncRNA in cancer and therapeutic opportunities","volume":"9","author":"Jiang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Am. J. Cancer Res."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2018.08.018","article-title":"LncRNA, miRNA and lncRNA-miRNA interaction in viral infection","volume":"257","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9853","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v21.i34.9853","article-title":"Circulating microRNAs as diagnostic and prognostic tools for hepatocellular carcinoma","volume":"21","author":"Zhang","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1577","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1113329","article-title":"Modulation of Hepatitis C Virus RNA Abundance by a Liver-Specific MicroRNA","volume":"309","author":"Jopling","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1038\/nature12869","article-title":"RNA viruses can hijack vertebrate microRNAs to suppress innate immunity","volume":"506","author":"Trobaugh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s12929-019-0614-x","article-title":"Role of microRNAs in antiviral responses to dengue infection","volume":"27","author":"Wong","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Biomed. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3353","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v17.i28.3353","article-title":"Hepatitis B virus and hepatocellular carcinoma at the miRNA level","volume":"17","author":"Zhang","year":"2011","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3300","DOI":"10.1038\/emboj.2008.244","article-title":"microRNA-122 stimulates translation of hepatitis C virus RNA","volume":"27","author":"Henke","year":"2008","journal-title":"EMBO J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1112263109","article-title":"Stabilization of hepatitis C virus RNA by an Ago2-miR-122 complex","volume":"109","author":"Shimakami","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.7150\/ijms.13996","article-title":"Dysregulated Serum MiRNA Profile and Promising Biomarkers in Dengue-infected Patients","volume":"13","author":"Ouyang","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1080\/01902148.2018.1439548","article-title":"MicroRNA-21 aggravates chronic obstructive pulmonary disease by promoting autophagy","volume":"44","author":"Zeng","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp. Lung Res."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1267","DOI":"10.1007\/s00109-016-1441-0","article-title":"MiR-449a regulates autophagy to inhibit silica-induced pulmonary fibrosis through targeting Bcl2","volume":"94","author":"Han","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e02388","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.02388-16","article-title":"A MicroRNA Screen Identifies the Wnt Signaling Pathway as a Regulator of the Interferon Response during Flavivirus Infection","volume":"91","author":"Smith","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19395","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-76404-8","article-title":"Lung transcriptome of a COVID-19 patient and systems biology predictions suggest impaired surfactant production which may be druggable by surfactant therapy","volume":"10","author":"Islam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mohammadi-Dehcheshmeh, M., Moghbeli, S.M., Rahimirad, S., Alanazi, I.O., Shehri, Z.S.A., and Ebrahimie, E. (2021). A Transcription Regulatory Sequence in the 5\u2032 Untranslated Region of SARS-CoV-2 Is Vital for Virus Replication with an Altered Evolutionary Pattern against Human Inhibitory MicroRNAs. Cells, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/cells10020319"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5965","DOI":"10.1016\/j.febslet.2005.08.034","article-title":"Antiviral silencing in animals","volume":"579","author":"Li","year":"2005","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Srivastava, R., Daulatabad, S.V., Srivastava, M., and Janga, S.C. (2020). Role of SARS-CoV-2 in Altering the RNA-Binding Protein and miRNA-Directed Post-Transcriptional Regulatory Networks in Humans. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.1101\/2020.07.06.190348"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Natarelli, L., Parca, L., Mazza, T., Weber, C., Virgili, F., and Fratantonio, D. (2021). MicroRNAs and Long Non-Coding RNAs as Potential Candidates to Target Specific Motifs of SARS-CoV-2. Non Coding RNA, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/ncrna7010014"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"765","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2020.00765","article-title":"Epigenetic Regulator miRNA Pattern Differences Among SARS-CoV, SARS-CoV-2, and SARS-CoV-2 World-Wide Isolates Delineated the Mystery Behind the Epic Pathogenicity and Distinct Clinical Characteristics of Pandemic COVID-19","volume":"11","author":"Khan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e9369","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.9369","article-title":"Computational analysis of microRNA-mediated interactions in SARS-CoV-2 infection","volume":"8","author":"Adan","year":"2020","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e04658","DOI":"10.1016\/j.heliyon.2020.e04658","article-title":"Integrative analyses of SARS-CoV-2 genomes from different geographical locations reveal unique features potentially consequential to host-virus interaction, pathogenesis and clues for novel therapies","volume":"6","author":"Sardar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Heliyon"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ncrna.2020.09.001","article-title":"Potential role of ACE2-related microRNAs in COVID-19-associated nephropathy","volume":"5","author":"Widiasta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Non Coding RNA Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110548","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2020.110548","article-title":"SARS-CoV infection crosstalk with human host cell noncoding-RNA machinery: An in-silico approach","volume":"130","author":"Yousefi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biomed Pharm."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00596","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.00596-12","article-title":"NEAT1 Long Noncoding RNA and Paraspeckle Bodies Modulate HIV-1 Posttranscriptional Expression","volume":"4","author":"Zhang","year":"2013","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Li, S., Yan, Q., Chen, X., Yang, Y., Liu, X., and Wan, X. (2013). Interferon-\u03b2 Induced microRNA-129-5p Down-Regulates HPV-18 E6 and E7 Viral Gene Expression by Targeting SP1 in Cervical Cancer Cells. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0081366"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ncrna.2017.03.002","article-title":"Viral lncRNA: A regulatory molecule for controlling virus life cycle","volume":"2","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Non Coding RNA Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virusres.2015.06.018","article-title":"Adenovirus VA RNA: An essential pro-viral non-coding RNA","volume":"212","author":"Vachon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Virus Res."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5823","DOI":"10.1111\/jcmm.16596","article-title":"Interplay between SARS-CoV-2 and human long non-coding RNAs","volume":"25","author":"Lanjanian","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Cell. Mol. Med."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vishnubalaji, R., Shaath, H., and Alajez, N.M. (2020). Protein Coding and Long Noncoding RNA (lncRNA) Transcriptional Landscape in SARS-CoV-2 Infected Bronchial Epithelial Cells Highlight a Role for Interferon and Inflammatory Response. Genes, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes11070760"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mukherjee, S., Banerjee, B., Karasik, D., and Frenkel-Morgenstern, M. (2021). mRNA-lncRNA Co-Expression Network Analysis Reveals the Role of lncRNAs in Immune Dysfunction during Severe SARS-CoV-2 Infection. Viruses, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/v13030402"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7991","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-86134-0","article-title":"A study of differential circRNA and lncRNA expressions in COVID-19-infected peripheral blood","volume":"11","author":"Wu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145057","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gene.2020.145057","article-title":"Unravelling host-pathogen interactions: ceRNA network in SARS-CoV-2 infection (COVID-19)","volume":"762","author":"Arora","year":"2020","journal-title":"Gene"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01280","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.01280-19","article-title":"HIV-1 Tat Interacts with a Kaposi\u2019s Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus Reactivation-Upregulated Antiangiogenic Long Noncoding RNA, LINC00313, and Antagonizes Its Function","volume":"94","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1343","DOI":"10.3201\/eid2606.200412","article-title":"Indirect Virus Transmission in Cluster of COVID-19 Cases, Wenzhou, China, 2020","volume":"26","author":"Cai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678994","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2021.678994","article-title":"Human MicroRNAs Interacting With SARS-CoV-2 RNA Sequences: Computational Analysis and Experimental Target Validation","volume":"12","author":"Siniscalchi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e9994","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.9994","article-title":"Potential role of cellular miRNAs in coronavirus-host interplay","volume":"8","author":"Nersisyan","year":"2020","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"980","DOI":"10.1038\/nature07511","article-title":"MicroRNA-21 contributes to myocardial disease by stimulating MAP kinase signalling in fibroblasts","volume":"456","author":"Thum","year":"2008","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"srep45284","DOI":"10.1038\/srep45284","article-title":"MiR-126 and miR-126* regulate shear-resistant firm leukocyte adhesion to human brain endothelium","volume":"7","author":"Cerutti","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"368","DOI":"10.1038\/nm.3487","article-title":"MicroRNA-126-5p promotes endothelial proliferation and limits atherosclerosis by suppressing Dlk1","volume":"20","author":"Schober","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yjmcc.2020.08.017","article-title":"MicroRNAs targeting the SARS-CoV-2 entry receptor ACE2 in cardiomyocytes","volume":"148","author":"Lu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1186\/s12967-020-02582-8","article-title":"Noncoding RNAs implication in cardiovascular diseases in the COVID-19 era","volume":"18","author":"Greco","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Transl. Med."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goulter, A.B., Goddard, M.J., Allen, J.C., and Clark, K.L. (2004). ACE2 gene expression is up-regulated in the human failing heart. BMC Med., 2.","DOI":"10.1186\/1741-7015-2-19"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1038\/s41419-019-1590-5","article-title":"Angiotensin II inhibits apoptosis of mouse aortic smooth muscle cells through regulating the circNRG-1\/miR-193b-5p\/NRG-1 axis","volume":"10","author":"Sun","year":"2019","journal-title":"Cell Death Dis."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165878","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbadis.2020.165878","article-title":"Insights into SARS-CoV-2 genome, structure, evolution, pathogenesis and therapies: Structural genomics approach","volume":"1866","author":"Naqvi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biochim. Biophys. Acta Mol. Basis Dis."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e231","DOI":"10.1016\/j.hrthm.2020.04.016","article-title":"Considerations for drug interactions on QTc interval in exploratory COVID-19 treatment","volume":"17","author":"Roden","year":"2020","journal-title":"Heart Rhythm."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"1824","article-title":"Pharmacologic Treatments for Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19): A Review","volume":"323","author":"Sanders","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1038\/s41591-020-0820-9","article-title":"The proximal origin of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"26","author":"Andersen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1038\/s41421-020-0156-0","article-title":"Hydroxychloroquine, a less toxic derivative of chloroquine, is effective in inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 infection in vitro","volume":"6","author":"Liu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell Discov."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5161","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-61958-4","article-title":"Identification of non-invasive biomarkers for predicting the radiosensitivity of nasopharyngeal carcinoma from serum microRNAs","volume":"10","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105954","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijantimicag.2020.105954","article-title":"Cytokine release syndrome in severe COVID-19: Interleukin-6 receptor antagonist tocilizumab may be the key to reduce mortality","volume":"55","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Antimicrob. Agents"},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"1084","article-title":"Effects of noise and vibration during embryogenesis on fetal development and postnatal growth of the mouse","volume":"104","author":"Briese","year":"1982","journal-title":"Zent. Gyn\u00e4kol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00127","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00127-20","article-title":"Receptor Recognition by the Novel Coronavirus from Wuhan: An Analysis Based on Decade-Long Structural Studies of SARS Coronavirus","volume":"94","author":"Wan","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.02.052","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Cell Entry Depends on ACE2 and TMPRSS2 and Is Blocked by a Clinically Proven Protease Inhibitor","volume":"181","author":"Hoffmann","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"822","DOI":"10.1038\/nature00786","article-title":"Angiotensin-Converting enzyme 2 is an essential regulator of heart function","volume":"417","author":"Crackower","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.1161\/01.HYP.0000205833.89478.5b","article-title":"Deletion of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 Accelerates Pressure Overload-Induced Cardiac Dysfunction by Increasing Local Angiotensin II","volume":"47","author":"Yamamoto","year":"2006","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1519","DOI":"10.1021\/acsinfecdis.1c00070","article-title":"Small-Molecule Inhibitors of the Coronavirus Spike: ACE2 Protein-Protein Interaction as Blockers of Viral Attachment and Entry for SARS-CoV-2","volume":"7","author":"Bojadzic","year":"2021","journal-title":"ACS Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1038\/nature03712","article-title":"Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 protects from severe acute lung failure","volume":"436","author":"Imai","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1038\/nm1267","article-title":"A crucial role of angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in SARS coronavirus\u2013induced lung injury","volume":"11","author":"Kuba","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Med."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.04.004","article-title":"Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 Infections in Engineered Human Tissues Using Clinical-Grade Soluble Human ACE2","volume":"181","author":"Monteil","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1653","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMsr2005760","article-title":"Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System Inhibitors in Patients with COVID-19","volume":"382","author":"Vaduganathan","year":"2020","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ahj.2021.04.005","article-title":"Randomized clinical trial to evaluate a routine full anticoagulation Strategy in Patients with Coronavirus Infection (SARS-CoV2) admitted to hospital: Rationale and design of the ACTION (AntiCoagulaTlon cOroNavirus)-Coalition IV trial","volume":"238","author":"Lopes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Am. Heart J."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e34","DOI":"10.1161\/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15841","article-title":"Plasma Angiotensin Peptide Profiling and ACE (Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme)-2 Activity in COVID-19 Patients Treated with Pharmacological Blockers of the Renin-Angiotensin System","volume":"76","author":"Kintscher","year":"2020","journal-title":"Hypertension"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603736","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.603736","article-title":"Angiotensin Receptor Blockers for COVID-19: Pathophysiological and Pharmacological Considerations About Ongoing and Future Prospective Clinical Trials","volume":"12","author":"Rothlin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1161\/CIRCRESAHA.117.311311","article-title":"RNA Therapeutics in Cardiovascular Disease","volume":"123","author":"Lucas","year":"2018","journal-title":"Circ. Res."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04303","article-title":"Silencing of microRNAs in vivo with \u2019antagomirs\u2019","volume":"438","author":"Rajewsky","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_104","first-page":"1073","article-title":"A MicroRNA-29 Mimic (Remlarsen) Represses Extracellular Matrix Expression and Fibroplasia in the Skin","volume":"139","author":"Piper","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Investig. Dermatol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1710","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1174381","article-title":"MicroRNA-92a Controls Angiogenesis and Functional Recovery of Ischemic Tissues in Mice","volume":"324","author":"Bonauer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kern, C., Wang, Y., Chitwood, J., Korf, I., Delany, M., Cheng, H., Medrano, J.F., Van Eenennaam, A.L., Ernst, C., and Ross, P. (2018). Genome-wide identification of tissue-specific long non-coding RNA in three farm animal species. BMC Genom., 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-018-5037-7"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13444","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-31770-2","article-title":"Characterisation and functional predictions of canine long non-coding RNAs","volume":"8","author":"Wucher","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_108","first-page":"e57","article-title":"FEELnc: A tool for long non-coding RNA annotation and its application to the dog transcriptome","volume":"45","author":"Wucher","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nucleic Acids Res."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.celrep.2015.04.023","article-title":"Principles of Long Noncoding RNA Evolution Derived from Direct Comparison of Transcriptomes in 17 Species","volume":"11","author":"Hezroni","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cell Rep."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1038\/gt.2015.109","article-title":"Prevalence of AAV1 neutralizing antibodies and consequences for a clinical trial of gene transfer for advanced heart failure","volume":"23","author":"Greenberg","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gene Ther."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"860","DOI":"10.1038\/s41416-020-01219-3","article-title":"COVID-19 vaccine race: Watch your step for cancer patients","volume":"124","author":"Fanciullino","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br. J. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1318","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2021.3199","article-title":"SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines","volume":"325","author":"Creech","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1885","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa2102214","article-title":"Efficacy of the ChAdOx1 nCoV-19 COVID-19 Vaccine against the B.1.351 Variant","volume":"384","author":"Madhi","year":"2021","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"629","DOI":"10.1038\/nbt0603-629","article-title":"RNAi puts a lid on virus replication","volume":"21","author":"Andino","year":"2003","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1038\/nature00873","article-title":"Short interfering RNA confers intracellular antiviral immunity in human cells","volume":"418","author":"Gitlin","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.embor.embor840","article-title":"Inhibition of intracellular hepatitis C virus replication by synthetic and vector-derived small interfering RNAs","volume":"4","author":"Yokota","year":"2003","journal-title":"EMBO Rep."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mao, R., Nie, H., Cai, D., Zhang, J., Liu, H., Yan, R., Cuconati, A., Block, T.M., Guo, J.-T., and Guo, H. (2013). Inhibition of Hepatitis B Virus Replication by the Host Zinc Finger Antiviral Protein. PLoS Pathog., 9.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1003494"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.virol.2004.03.031","article-title":"Attenuation of SARS coronavirus by a short hairpin RNA expression plasmid targeting RNA-dependent RNA polymerase","volume":"324","author":"Lu","year":"2004","journal-title":"Virology"},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-5793(04)00087-0","article-title":"Silencing SARS-CoV Spike protein expression in cultured cells by RNA interference","volume":"560","author":"Zhang","year":"2004","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5757","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.00083-06","article-title":"Antigenic and Immunogenic Characterization of Recombinant Baculovirus-Expressed Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Spike Protein: Implication for Vaccine Design","volume":"80","author":"He","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"866","DOI":"10.1177\/15353702-0322807-13","article-title":"The Complete Genome Sequence of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus Strain HKU-39849 (HK-39)","volume":"228","author":"Zeng","year":"2003","journal-title":"Exp. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-017-0445-2","article-title":"Role of transcription regulatory sequence in regulation of gene expression and replication of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus","volume":"48","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Veter. Res."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2506","DOI":"10.1128\/JVI.79.4.2506-2516.2005","article-title":"Role of Nucleotides Immediately Flanking the Transcription-Regulating Sequence Core in Coronavirus Subgenomic mRNA Synthesis","volume":"79","author":"Sola","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Virol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.1093\/molbev\/msaa281","article-title":"Characterizing Transcriptional Regulatory Sequences in Coronaviruses and Their Role in Recombination","volume":"38","author":"Yang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"645","DOI":"10.1101\/gr.268110.120","article-title":"Subgenomic RNA identification in SARS-CoV-2 genomic sequencing data","volume":"31","author":"Parker","year":"2021","journal-title":"Genome Res."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1399","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1085953","article-title":"The Genome Sequence of the SARS-Associated Coronavirus","volume":"300","author":"Marra","year":"2003","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1349","DOI":"10.2217\/epi-2020-0162","article-title":"Potential use of noncoding RNAs and innovative therapeutic strategies to target the 5\u2032UTR of SARS-CoV-2","volume":"12","author":"Baldassarre","year":"2020","journal-title":"Epigenomics"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"914","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2020.04.011","article-title":"The Architecture of SARS-CoV-2 Transcriptome","volume":"181","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI143632","article-title":"Histone deficiency and accelerated replication stress in T cell aging","volume":"131","author":"Kim","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/22\/22\/12243\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:29:22Z","timestamp":1760167762000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/22\/22\/12243"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,12]]},"references-count":129,"journal-issue":{"issue":"22","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms222212243"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms222212243","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"1422-0067"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,12]]}}}