{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,21]],"date-time":"2026-08-21T13:51:05Z","timestamp":1787320265802,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,16]],"date-time":"2021-11-16T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1637020800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100008359","name":"Maag Lever Darm Stichting","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["WO09-62"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["WO09-62"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100008359","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Vrienden van het Sophia","award":["S14-33"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["S14-33"]}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001826","name":"Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["40-00812-98-10042"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["40-00812-98-10042"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001826","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Patients with Hirschsprung disease (HSCR) do not always receive a genetic diagnosis after routine screening in clinical practice. One of the reasons for this could be that the causal mutation is not present in the cell types that are usually tested\u2014whole blood, dermal fibroblasts or saliva\u2014but is only in the affected tissue. Such mutations are called somatic, and can occur in a given cell at any stage of development after conception. They will then be present in all subsequent daughter cells. Here, we investigated the presence of somatic mutations in HSCR patients. For this, whole-exome sequencing and copy number analysis were performed in DNA isolated from purified enteric neural crest cells (ENCCs) and blood or fibroblasts of the same patient. Variants identified were subsequently validated by Sanger sequencing. Several somatic variants were identified in all patients, but causative mutations for HSCR were not specifically identified in the ENCCs of these patients. Larger copy number variants were also not found to be specific to ENCCs. Therefore, we believe that somatic mutations are unlikely to be identified, if causative for HSCR. Here, we postulate various modes of development following the occurrence of a somatic mutation, to describe the challenges in detecting such mutations, and hypothesize how somatic mutations may contribute to \u2018missing heritability\u2019 in developmental defects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222212354","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,16]],"date-time":"2021-11-16T11:32:03Z","timestamp":1637062323000},"page":"12354","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["The Somatic Mutation Paradigm in Congenital Malformations: Hirschsprung Disease as a Model"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Katherine C.","family":"MacKenzie","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus University Medical Center-Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rhiana","family":"Garritsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus University Medical Center-Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Pediatric Surgery, Erasmus University Medical Center-Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3904-5332","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rajendra K.","family":"Chauhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus University Medical Center-Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Fluidigm Europe B.V., 1101 CM Amstelveen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yunia","family":"Sribudiani","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus University Medical Center-Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas of Padjadjaran, Bandung 45363, Indonesia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bianca M.","family":"de Graaf","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus University Medical Center-Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tim","family":"Rugenbrink","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus University Medical Center-Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rutger","family":"Brouwer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cell Biology & Center for Biomics, Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3015 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0421-8301","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Wilfred F. J.","family":"van Ijcken","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cell Biology & Center for Biomics, Erasmus University Medical Center Rotterdam, 3015 GD Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ivo","family":"de Blaauw","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatric Surgery, Erasmus University Medical Center-Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Paediatric Surgery, Amalia Children\u2019s Hospital, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alice S.","family":"Brooks","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus University Medical Center-Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cornelius E. J.","family":"Sloots","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatric Surgery, Erasmus University Medical Center-Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Conny J. H. M.","family":"Meeuwsen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatric Surgery, Erasmus University Medical Center-Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ren\u00e9 M.","family":"Wijnen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatric Surgery, Erasmus University Medical Center-Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Donald F.","family":"Newgreen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cell Biology, Murdoch Children\u2019s Research Institute, Royal Children\u2019s Hospital, Parkville, VIC 3052, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alan J.","family":"Burns","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus University Medical Center-Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London WC1N 1EH, UK"},{"name":"Takeda Pharmaceuticals, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert M. W.","family":"Hofstra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus University Medical Center-Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Department of Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine, UCL Great Ormond Street Institute of Child Health, London WC1N 1EH, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0083-5318","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria M.","family":"Alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus University Medical Center-Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8235-4010","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Erwin","family":"Brosens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Genetics, Erasmus University Medical Center-Sophia Children\u2019s Hospital, 3000 CA Rotterdam, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,16]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1186\/1750-1172-3-12","article-title":"Mccune-albright syndrome","volume":"3","author":"Dumitrescu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Orphanet J. 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