{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,4]],"date-time":"2026-11-04T22:20:07Z","timestamp":1793830807285,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":248,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"22","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,17]],"date-time":"2021-11-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1637107200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Osteochondral (OC) defects are debilitating joint injuries characterized by the loss of full thickness articular cartilage along with the underlying calcified cartilage through to the subchondral bone. While current surgical treatments can provide some relief from pain, none can fully repair all the components of the OC unit and restore its native function. Engineering OC tissue is challenging due to the presence of the three distinct tissue regions. Recent advances in additive manufacturing provide unprecedented control over the internal microstructure of bioscaffolds, the patterning of growth factors and the encapsulation of potentially regenerative cells. These developments are ushering in a new paradigm of \u2018multiphasic\u2019 scaffold designs in which the optimal micro-environment for each tissue region is individually crafted. Although the adoption of these techniques provides new opportunities in OC research, it also introduces challenges, such as creating tissue interfaces, integrating multiple fabrication techniques and co-culturing different cells within the same construct. This review captures the considerations and capabilities in developing 3D printed OC scaffolds, including materials, fabrication techniques, mechanical function, biological components and design.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222212420","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,17]],"date-time":"2021-11-17T21:32:07Z","timestamp":1637184727000},"page":"12420","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":51,"title":["3D Printed Multiphasic Scaffolds for Osteochondral Repair: Challenges and Opportunities"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5776-0962","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Stephanie E.","family":"Doyle","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical and Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia"},{"name":"ACMD, St Vincent\u2019s Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, VIC 3065, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Finn","family":"Snow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical and Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Serena","family":"Duchi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ACMD, St Vincent\u2019s Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, VIC 3065, Australia"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, The University of Melbourne, St Vincent\u2019s Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, VIC 3065, Australia"},{"name":"ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science, Intelligent Polymer Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cathal D.","family":"O\u2019Connell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical and Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia"},{"name":"ACMD, St Vincent\u2019s Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, VIC 3065, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1076-6419","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carmine","family":"Onofrillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ACMD, St Vincent\u2019s Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, VIC 3065, Australia"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, The University of Melbourne, St Vincent\u2019s Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, VIC 3065, Australia"},{"name":"ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science, Intelligent Polymer Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9980-8672","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Claudia","family":"Di Bella","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ACMD, St Vincent\u2019s Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, VIC 3065, Australia"},{"name":"Department of Surgery, The University of Melbourne, St Vincent\u2019s Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, VIC 3065, Australia"},{"name":"Department of Orthopaedics, St Vincent\u2019s Hospital Melbourne, Fitzroy, VIC 3065, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9422-1370","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"Pirogova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Electrical and Biomedical Engineering, School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Hall, S. 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