{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T21:18:34Z","timestamp":1790889514437,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":253,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,10]],"date-time":"2021-12-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1639094400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Adverse drug reactions (ADRs) rank as one of the top 10 leading causes of death and illness in developed countries. ADRs show differential features depending upon genotype, age, sex, race, pathology, drug category, route of administration, and drug\u2013drug interactions. Pharmacogenomics (PGx) provides the physician effective clues for optimizing drug efficacy and safety in major problems of health such as cardiovascular disease and associated disorders, cancer and brain disorders. Important aspects to be considered are also the impact of immunopharmacogenomics in cutaneous ADRs as well as the influence of genomic factors associated with COVID-19 and vaccination strategies. Major limitations for the routine use of PGx procedures for ADRs prevention are the lack of education and training in physicians and pharmacists, poor characterization of drug-related PGx, unspecific biomarkers of drug efficacy and toxicity, cost-effectiveness, administrative problems in health organizations, and insufficient regulation for the generalized use of PGx in the clinical setting. The implementation of PGx requires: (i) education of physicians and all other parties involved in the use and benefits of PGx; (ii) prospective studies to demonstrate the benefits of PGx genotyping; (iii) standardization of PGx procedures and development of clinical guidelines; (iv) NGS and microarrays to cover genes with high PGx potential; and (v) new regulations for PGx-related drug development and PGx drug labelling.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222413302","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,13]],"date-time":"2021-12-13T01:28:11Z","timestamp":1639358891000},"page":"13302","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":91,"title":["Genophenotypic Factors and Pharmacogenomics in Adverse Drug Reactions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0554-4037","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ram\u00f3n","family":"Cacabelos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genomic Medicine, International Center of Neuroscience and Genomic Medicine, EuroEspes Biomedical Research Center, Bergondo, 15165 Corunna, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vinogran","family":"Naidoo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neuroscience, International Center of Neuroscience and Genomic Medicine, EuroEspes Biomedical Research Center, Bergondo, 15165 Corunna, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lola","family":"Corzo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biochemistry, International Center of Neuroscience and Genomic Medicine, EuroEspes Biomedical Research Center, Bergondo, 15165 Corunna, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Natalia","family":"Cacabelos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Documentation, International Center of Neuroscience and Genomic Medicine, EuroEspes Biomedical Research Center, Bergondo, 15165 Corunna, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3159-3545","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juan C.","family":"Carril","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departments of Genomics and Pharmacogenomics, International Center of Neuroscience and Genomic Medicine, EuroEspes Biomedical Research Center, Bergondo, 15165 Corunna, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.apha.2018.03.002","article-title":"Pharmacogenetics of Adverse Drug Reactions","volume":"83","author":"Osanlou","year":"2018","journal-title":"Adv. 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