{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,26]],"date-time":"2026-10-26T17:22:50Z","timestamp":1793035370639,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":140,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,15]],"date-time":"2021-12-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1639526400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Chronic low-grade inflammation is involved in coronary atherosclerosis, presenting multiple clinical manifestations ranging from asymptomatic to stable angina, acute coronary syndrome, heart failure and sudden cardiac death. Coronary microvasculature consists of vessels with a diameter less than 500 \u03bcm, whose potential structural and functional abnormalities can lead to inappropriate dilatation and an inability to meet the required myocardium oxygen demands. This review focuses on the pathogenesis of coronary microvascular dysfunction and the capability of non-invasive screening methods to detect the phenomenon. Anti-inflammatory agents, such as statins and immunomodulators, including anakinra, tocilizumab, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha inhibitors, have been assessed recently and may constitute additional or alternative treatment approaches to reduce cardiovascular events in atherosclerotic heart disease characterized by coronary microvascular dysfunction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222413471","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,15]],"date-time":"2021-12-15T09:02:19Z","timestamp":1639558939000},"page":"13471","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":115,"title":["Inflammation in Coronary Microvascular Dysfunction"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Marios","family":"Sagris","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Clinic, \u2018Hippokration\u2019 General Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9260-6306","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Panagiotis","family":"Theofilis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Clinic, \u2018Hippokration\u2019 General Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alexios S.","family":"Antonopoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Clinic, \u2018Hippokration\u2019 General Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8079-0599","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Evangelos","family":"Oikonomou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Clinic, \u2018Hippokration\u2019 General Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"},{"name":"Department of Cardiology, \u201cSotiria\u201d Thoracic Diseases Hospital of Athens, University of Athens Medical School, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christina","family":"Paschaliori","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Clinic, \u2018Hippokration\u2019 General Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nikolaos","family":"Galiatsatos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Clinic, \u2018Hippokration\u2019 General Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kostas","family":"Tsioufis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Clinic, \u2018Hippokration\u2019 General Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Dimitris","family":"Tousoulis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cardiology Clinic, \u2018Hippokration\u2019 General Hospital, School of Medicine, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 11527 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2993","DOI":"10.1161\/01.CIR.0000130642.79868.B2","article-title":"Prognosis in women with myocardial ischemia in the absence of obstructive coronary disease: Results from the National Institutes of Health-National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute-Sponsored Women\u2019s Ischemia Syndrome Evaluation (WISE)","volume":"109","author":"Johnson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Circulation"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jacc.2010.11.078","article-title":"Mortality risk in symptomatic patients with nonobstructive coronary artery disease: A prospective 2-center study of 2583 patients undergoing 64-detector row coronary computed tomographic angiography","volume":"58","author":"Lin","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. 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