{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,20]],"date-time":"2026-10-20T18:03:07Z","timestamp":1792519387902,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":170,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"24","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,17]],"date-time":"2021-12-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1639699200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Membranous nephropathy (MN) is an important cause of nephrotic syndrome and chronic kidney disease (CKD) in adults. The pathogenic significance of B cells in MN is increasingly recognized, especially following the discovery of various autoantibodies that target specific podocytic antigens and the promising treatment responses seen with B cell depleting therapies. The presence of autoreactive B cells and autoantibodies that bind to antigens on podocyte surfaces are characteristic features of MN, and are the result of breaches in central and peripheral tolerance of B lymphocytes. These perturbations in B cell tolerance include altered B lymphocyte subsets, dysregulation of genes that govern immunoglobulin production, aberrant somatic hypermutation and co-stimulatory signalling, abnormal expression of B cell-related cytokines, and increased B cell infiltrates and organized tertiary lymphoid structures within the kidneys. An understanding of the role of B cell tolerance and homeostasis may have important implications for patient management in MN, as conventional immunosuppressive treatments and novel B cell-targeted therapies show distinct effects on proliferation, differentiation and reconstitution in different B cell subsets. Circulating B lymphocytes and related cytokines may serve as potential biomarkers for treatment selection, monitoring of therapeutic response and prediction of disease relapse. These recent advances in the understanding of B cell tolerance in MN have provided greater insight into its immunopathogenesis and potential novel strategies for disease monitoring and treatment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms222413560","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,19]],"date-time":"2021-12-19T20:37:27Z","timestamp":1639946247000},"page":"13560","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":28,"title":["B Cells in Primary Membranous Nephropathy: Escape from Immune Tolerance and Implications for Patient Management"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"Benjamin Y. F.","family":"So","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, Queen Mary Hospital, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8179-8293","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Desmond Y. H.","family":"Yap","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, Queen Mary Hospital, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tak Mao","family":"Chan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medicine, Division of Nephrology, Queen Mary Hospital, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"414","DOI":"10.1093\/ndt\/gfq665","article-title":"The incidence of primary glomerulonephritis worldwide: A systematic review of the literature","volume":"26","author":"McGrogan","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nephrol. Dial. 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