{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]],"date-time":"2026-06-06T19:13:28Z","timestamp":1780773208247,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":238,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,11]],"date-time":"2022-01-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1641859200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Drug addiction causes constant serious health, social, and economic burden within the human society. The current drug dependence pharmacotherapies, particularly relapse prevention, remain limited, unsatisfactory, unreliable for opioids and tobacco, and even symptomatic for stimulants and cannabinoids, thus, new more effective treatment strategies are researched. The antagonism of the growth hormone secretagogue receptor type A (GHS-R1A) has been recently proposed as a novel alcohol addiction treatment strategy, and it has been intensively studied in experimental models of other addictive drugs, such as nicotine, stimulants, opioids and cannabinoids. The role of ghrelin signaling in these drugs effects has also been investigated. The present review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of preclinical and clinical studies focused on ghrelin\u2019s\/GHS-R1A possible involvement in these nonalcohol addictive drugs reinforcing effects and addiction. Although the investigation is still in its early stage, majority of the existing reviewed experimental results from rodents with the addition of few human studies, that searched correlations between the genetic variations of the ghrelin signaling or the ghrelin blood content with the addictive drugs effects, have indicated the importance of the ghrelin\u2019s\/GHS-R1As involvement in the nonalcohol abused drugs pro-addictive effects. Further research is necessary to elucidate the exact involved mechanisms and to verify the future potential utilization and safety of the GHS-R1A antagonism use for these drug addiction therapies, particularly for reducing the risk of relapse.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23020761","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,11]],"date-time":"2022-01-11T14:05:07Z","timestamp":1641909907000},"page":"761","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["The Role of Ghrelin\/GHS-R1A Signaling in Nonalcohol Drug Addictions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6904-4496","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Magdalena","family":"Sustkova-Fiserova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Ruska 87, 100 00 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chrysostomos","family":"Charalambous","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Ruska 87, 100 00 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Anna","family":"Khryakova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Ruska 87, 100 00 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Alina","family":"Certilina","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Ruska 87, 100 00 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6811-1610","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marek","family":"Lapka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pharmacology, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Ruska 87, 100 00 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Romana","family":"\u0160lamberov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Ke Karlovu 4, 120 00 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"593","DOI":"10.1093\/alcalc\/agz063","article-title":"Alcohol-Related Mortality in the WHO European Region: Sex-Specific Trends and Predictions","volume":"54","author":"Pruckner","year":"2019","journal-title":"Alcohol Alcohol."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"European Commission (2021, December 01). Tobacco\u2014Overview. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/health\/tobacco\/overview_en."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"(2019). Drug-Related Deaths and Mortality in Europe, European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction, Publication Office of the EU Luxemburg."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"UNODC (2021, December 01). World Drug Report 2021. Available online: https:\/\/www.unodc.org\/unodc\/data-and-analysis\/wdr2021.html."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2115","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.00014.2018","article-title":"The Neuroscience of Drug Reward and Addiction","volume":"99","author":"Volkow","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1016\/S2215-0366(16)00104-8","article-title":"Neurobiology of addiction: A neurocircuitry analysis","volume":"3","author":"Koob","year":"2016","journal-title":"Lancet Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3306","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.22-09-03306.2002","article-title":"The Neuroscience of Natural Rewards: Relevance to Addictive Drugs","volume":"22","author":"Kelley","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1007\/BF03033808","article-title":"Dopamine and reward: The anhedonia hypothesis 30 years on","volume":"14","author":"Wise","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurotox. Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(78)90253-6","article-title":"Catecholamine theories of reward: A critical review","volume":"152","author":"Wise","year":"1978","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1445","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1578","article-title":"Is there a common molecular pathway for addiction?","volume":"8","author":"Nestler","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"367","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1986.tb23629.x","article-title":"Preferential stimulation of dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens by opiates, alcohol, and barbiturates: Studies with transcerebral dialysis in freely moving rats","volume":"473","author":"Imperato","year":"1986","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5274","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.85.14.5274","article-title":"Drugs abused by humans preferentially increase synaptic dopamine concentrations in the mesolimbic system of freely moving rats","volume":"85","author":"Imperato","year":"1988","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4328(02)00286-3","article-title":"Nucleus accumbens shell and core dopamine: Differential role in behavior and addiction","volume":"137","year":"2002","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"863","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.20852","article-title":"Cholinergic axons in the rat ventral tegmental area synapse preferentially onto mesoaccumbens dopamine neurons","volume":"494","author":"Omelchenko","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Comp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3596","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1460-9568.2000.00250.x","article-title":"Laterodorsal tegmental stimulation elicits dopamine efflux in the rat nucleus accumbens by activation of acetylcholine and glutamate receptors in the ventral tegmental area","volume":"12","author":"Forster","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"713","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2003.11.010","article-title":"Neurochemical and behavioral studies on ethanol and nicotine interactions","volume":"27","author":"Larsson","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1111\/ejn.13436","article-title":"Optogenetic excitation in the ventral tegmental area of glutamatergic or cholinergic inputs from the laterodorsal tegmental area drives reward","volume":"45","author":"Steidl","year":"2017","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-0173(93)90013-P","article-title":"The Neural Basis of Drug Craving\u2014An Incentive-Sensitization Theory of Addiction","volume":"18","author":"Robinson","year":"1993","journal-title":"Brain Res. Rev."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"227","DOI":"10.1016\/0163-7258(87)90108-2","article-title":"The role of reward pathways in the development of drug dependence","volume":"35","author":"Wise","year":"1987","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12484","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3133-07.2007","article-title":"Cocaine-Conditioned Place Preference by Dopamine-Deficient Mice Is Mediated by Serotonin","volume":"27","author":"Hnasko","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-2999(00)00544-6","article-title":"Endogenous opioids and reward","volume":"405","author":"Niesink","year":"2000","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-pharmtox-010716-104615","article-title":"Don\u2019t Worry, Be Happy: Endocannabinoids and Cannabis at the Intersection of Stress and Reward","volume":"57","author":"Volkow","year":"2017","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.3389\/fncir.2019.00078","article-title":"VTA GABA Neurons at the Interface of Stress and Reward","volume":"13","author":"Bouarab","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Neural Circuits"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2007.10.020","article-title":"Role of GABAA receptors in the endomorphin-1-, but not endomorphin-2-, induced dopamine efflux in the nucleus accumbens of freely moving rats","volume":"580","author":"Aono","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2011.03.014","article-title":"Neural Systems Governed by Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors: Emerging Hypotheses","volume":"70","author":"Miwa","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2018.11.005","article-title":"Gut-brain axis and addictive disorders: A review with focus on alcohol and drugs of abuse","volume":"196","author":"Jerlhag","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-789X.2012.01031.x","article-title":"Obesity and addiction: Neurobiological overlaps","volume":"14","author":"Volkow","year":"2013","journal-title":"Obes. Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/1098-108X(199407)16:1<1::AID-EAT2260160102>3.0.CO;2-T","article-title":"Co-morbidity of eating disorders and substance abuse review of the literature","volume":"16","author":"Holderness","year":"1994","journal-title":"Int. J. Eat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1016\/0899-3289(92)90041-U","article-title":"The relationship of dieting severity and bulimic behaviors to alcohol and other drug use in young women","volume":"4","author":"Krahn","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Subst. Abus."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7502","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.18-18-07502.1998","article-title":"Food restriction enhances the central rewarding effect of abused drugs","volume":"18","author":"Carr","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"420","DOI":"10.1007\/s002130000674","article-title":"Rewarding and locomotor-activating effects of direct dopamine receptor agonists are augmented by chronic food restriction in rats","volume":"154","author":"CCarr","year":"2001","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2006.09.021","article-title":"Chronic food restriction: Enhancing effects on drug reward and striatal cell signaling","volume":"91","author":"Carr","year":"2007","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"656","DOI":"10.1038\/45230","article-title":"Ghrelin is a growth-hormone-releasing acylated peptide from stomach","volume":"402","author":"Kojima","year":"1999","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1369-1600.2010.00216.x","article-title":"Ghrelin increases intake of rewarding food in rodents","volume":"15","author":"Egecioglu","year":"2010","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.peptides.2005.04.025","article-title":"Ghrelin induces feeding in the mesolimbic reward pathway between the ventral tegmental area and the nucleus accumbens","volume":"26","author":"Naleid","year":"2005","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"519","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-physiol-021113-170310","article-title":"The Central Nervous System Sites Mediating the Orexigenic Actions of Ghrelin","volume":"76","author":"Mason","year":"2014","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/S0196-9781(01)00633-7","article-title":"Ghrelin-producing cells exist as two types of cells, closed- and opened-type cells, in the rat gastrointestinal tract","volume":"23","author":"Sakata","year":"2002","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmet.2015.03.005","article-title":"Ghrelin","volume":"4","author":"Muller","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"E297","article-title":"Plasma ghrelin levels and hunger scores in humans initiating meals voluntarily without time- and food-related cues","volume":"287","author":"Cummings","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1016\/S0304-3940(01)02544-7","article-title":"Immunocytochemical observation of ghrelin-containing neurons in the rat arcuate nucleus","volume":"321","author":"Lu","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.regpep.2004.08.038","article-title":"Identification of ghrelin and its receptor in neurons of the rat arcuate nucleus","volume":"126","author":"Mondal","year":"2005","journal-title":"Regul. Pept."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.2174\/157015909787602779","article-title":"Ghrelin in Central Neurons","volume":"7","author":"Ferrini","year":"2009","journal-title":"Curr. Neuropharmacol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cabral, A., Lopez Soto, E.J., Epelbaum, J., and Perello, M. (2017). Is Ghrelin Synthesized in the Central Nervous System?. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms18030638"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1159\/000358345","article-title":"Should We Consider Des-Acyl Ghrelin as a Separate Hormone and If So, What Does It Do?","volume":"42","author":"Delhanty","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Horm. Res."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"srep45541","DOI":"10.1038\/srep45541","article-title":"Unacylated ghrelin promotes adipogenesis in rodent bone marrow via ghrelin O-acyl transferase and GHS-R1a activity: Evidence for target cell-induced acylation","volume":"7","author":"Hopkins","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-12-0456","article-title":"Mechanisms in endocrinology: Ghrelin: The differences between acyl- and des-acyl ghrelin","volume":"167","author":"Delhanty","year":"2012","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"984","DOI":"10.1124\/pr.113.008433","article-title":"Novel and Conventional Receptors for Ghrelin, Desacyl-Ghrelin, and Pharmacologically Related Compounds","volume":"66","author":"Callaghan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122","DOI":"10.2337\/db13-0414","article-title":"Both Acyl and Des-Acyl Ghrelin Regulate Adiposity and Glucose Metabolism via Central Nervous System Ghrelin Receptors","volume":"63","author":"Heppner","year":"2013","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molmet.2018.09.007","article-title":"Ghrelin transport across the blood\u2013brain barrier can occur independently of the growth hormone secretagogue receptor","volume":"18","author":"Rhea","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"542","DOI":"10.1111\/jne.12168","article-title":"Divergent Neuronal Circuitries Underlying Acute Orexigenic Effects of Peripheral or Central Ghrelin: Critical Role of Brain Accessibility","volume":"26","author":"Cabral","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neuroendocr."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1512","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1212137110","article-title":"Rapid sensing of circulating ghrelin by hypothalamic appetite-modifying neurons","volume":"110","author":"Schaeffer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2011.07.063","article-title":"Investigation of the presence of ghrelin in the central nervous system of the rat and mouse","volume":"193","author":"Furness","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12677","DOI":"10.1111\/jne.12677","article-title":"Brain accessibility delineates the central effects of circulating ghrelin","volume":"31","author":"Perello","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neuroendocr."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1841","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-38549-z","article-title":"Ghrelin Receptor Influence on Cocaine Reward is Not Directly Dependent on Peripheral Acyl-Ghrelin","volume":"9","author":"Wenthur","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jerlhag, E., Janson, A.C., Waters, S., and Engel, J.A. (2012). Concomitant Release of Ventral Tegmental Acetylcholine and Accumbal Dopamine by Ghrelin in Rats. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0049557"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1126\/science.273.5277.974","article-title":"A Receptor in Pituitary and Hypothalamus That Functions in Growth Hormone Release","volume":"273","author":"Howard","year":"1996","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-328X(97)00071-5","article-title":"Distribution of mRNA encoding the growth hormone secretagogue receptor in brain and peripheral tissues","volume":"48","author":"Guan","year":"1997","journal-title":"Mol. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tem.2019.09.006","article-title":"Ghrelin Signaling: GOAT and GHS-R1a Take a LEAP in Complexity","volume":"31","author":"Abizaid","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trends Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1080\/09687688.2017.1388930","article-title":"The octanoylated energy regulating hormone ghrelin: An expanded view of ghrelin\u2019s biological interactions and avenues for controlling ghrelin signaling","volume":"33","author":"Cleverdon","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Membr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"426","DOI":"10.1210\/er.2002-0029","article-title":"Biological, physiological, pathophysiological, and pharmacological aspects of ghrelin","volume":"25","author":"Tschop","year":"2004","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3229","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI29867","article-title":"Ghrelin modulates the activity and synaptic input organization of midbrain dopamine neurons while promoting appetite","volume":"116","author":"Abizaid","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"182","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2011.03.003","article-title":"Expression of the gene encoding the ghrelin receptor in rats selected for differential alcohol preference","volume":"221","author":"Landgren","year":"2011","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"528","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.20823","article-title":"Expression of ghrelin receptor mRNA in the rat and the mouse brain","volume":"494","author":"Zigman","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Comp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2008.12.006","article-title":"Systemic administration of ghrelin increases extracellular dopamine in the shell but not the core subdivision of the nucleus accumbens","volume":"54","author":"Quarta","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2011.02.016","article-title":"Ghrelin directly targets the ventral tegmental area to increase food motivation","volume":"180","author":"Skibicka","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e15113","DOI":"10.14814\/phy2.15113","article-title":"Expression of the growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHS-R1a) in the brain","volume":"9","author":"Airapetov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Physiol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27021","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M115.659250","article-title":"Agonism, Antagonism, and Inverse Agonism Bias at the Ghrelin Receptor Signaling","volume":"290","author":"Leyris","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3100","DOI":"10.1210\/me.2007-0254","article-title":"Importance of Constitutive Activity and Arrestin-Independent Mechanisms for Intracellular Trafficking of the Ghrelin Receptor","volume":"21","author":"Holliday","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"87","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2013.00087","article-title":"GHS-R1a constitutive activity and its physiological relevance","volume":"7","author":"Mear","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabb1953","DOI":"10.1126\/scisignal.abb1953","article-title":"Ligand-independent activity of the ghrelin receptor modulates AMPA receptor trafficking and supports memory formation","volume":"14","author":"Ribeiro","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Signal."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1038\/s41380-018-0064-y","article-title":"The novel ghrelin receptor inverse agonist PF-5190457 administered with alcohol: Preclinical safety experiments and a phase 1b human laboratory study","volume":"25","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wellman, M., and Abizaid, A. (2015). Growth Hormone Secretagogue Receptor Dimers: A New Pharmacological Target. eNeuro, 2.","DOI":"10.1523\/ENEURO.0053-14.2015"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mce.2012.11.007","article-title":"Ghrelin and cannabinoids require the ghrelin receptor to affect cellular energy metabolism","volume":"365","author":"Lim","year":"2013","journal-title":"Mol. Cell. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M112.382473","article-title":"Promiscuous Dimerization of the Growth Hormone Secretagogue Receptor (GHS-R1a) Attenuates Ghrelin-mediated Signaling","volume":"288","author":"Schellekens","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R81","DOI":"10.1530\/JME-19-0138","article-title":"The sigma-1 receptor as key common factor in cocaine and food-seeking behaviors","volume":"63","author":"Aguinaga","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mol. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Navarro, G., Rea, W., Quiroz, C., Moreno, E., Gomez, D., Wenthur, C.J., Casad\u00f3, V., Leggio, L., Hearing, M.C., and Ferr\u00e9, S. (2021). Complexes of ghrelin GHS-R1a, GHS-R1b and dopamine D1 receptors localized in the ventral tegmental area as main mediators of the dopaminergic effects of ghrelin. J. Neurosci.","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1151-21.2021"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13048","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M116.715144","article-title":"A Significant Role of the Truncated Ghrelin Receptor GHS-R1b in Ghrelin-induced Signaling in Neurons","volume":"291","author":"Navarro","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4749","DOI":"10.2174\/138161212803216906","article-title":"The Growth Hormone Secretagogue Receptor (Ghs-R)","volume":"18","author":"Laviano","year":"2012","journal-title":"Curr. Pharm. Des."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1159\/000105141","article-title":"Heterogeneity of ghrelin\/growth hormone secretagogue receptors. Toward the understanding of the molecular identity of novel ghrelin\/GHS receptors","volume":"86","author":"Muccioli","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cmet.2017.10.016","article-title":"LEAP2 Is an Endogenous Antagonist of the Ghrelin Receptor","volume":"27","author":"Ge","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cell Metab."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jmedchem.8b01644","article-title":"N-Terminal Liver-Expressed Antimicrobial Peptide 2 (LEAP2) Region Exhibits Inverse Agonist Activity toward the Ghrelin Receptor","volume":"62","author":"Cabral","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Med. Chem."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1369-1600.2006.00002.x","article-title":"Ghrelin stimulates locomotor activity and accumbal dopamine-overflow via central cholinergic systems in mice: Implications for its involvement in brain reward","volume":"11","author":"Jerlhag","year":"2006","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1369-1600.2010.00231.x","article-title":"Glutamatergic regulation of ghrelin-induced activation of the mesolimbic dopamine system","volume":"16","author":"Jerlhag","year":"2011","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1369-1600.2006.00041.x","article-title":"Ghrelin administration into tegmental areas stimulates locomotor activity and increases extracellular concentration of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens","volume":"12","author":"Jerlhag","year":"2007","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2013.06.014","article-title":"Ghrelin amplifies the nicotine-induced dopamine release in the rat striatum","volume":"63","author":"Palotai","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.3389\/fendo.2014.00163","article-title":"Ghrelin-Derived Peptides: A Link between Appetite\/Reward, GH Axis, and Psychiatric Disorders?","volume":"5","author":"Labarthe","year":"2014","journal-title":"Front. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2014.11.013","article-title":"Ghrelin in psychiatric disorders\u2014A review","volume":"52","author":"Wittekind","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"531","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2020.05.013","article-title":"Ghrelin as a Stress Hormone: Implications for Psychiatric Illness","volume":"88","author":"Stone","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2012.03.010","article-title":"Ghrelin Regulates the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis and Restricts Anxiety After Acute Stress","volume":"72","author":"Spencer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2014.10.021","article-title":"Ghrelin\u2019s Role in the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Stress Response: Implications for Mood Disorders","volume":"78","author":"Spencer","year":"2015","journal-title":"Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"495","DOI":"10.2174\/1389450116666150518095650","article-title":"An Integrative Review on Role and Mechanisms of Ghrelin in Stress, Anxiety and Depression","volume":"17","author":"Bali","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11318","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0812809106","article-title":"Requirement of central ghrelin signaling for alcohol reward","volume":"106","author":"Jerlhag","year":"2009","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2016.12.012","article-title":"The impact of the appetite-regulating, orexigenic peptide ghrelin on alcohol use disorders: A systematic review of preclinical and clinical data","volume":"131","author":"Koopmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1097\/YCO.0000000000000519","article-title":"Prospects for pharmacotherapies to treat alcohol use disorder: An update on recent human studies","volume":"32","author":"Farokhnia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2019.02.008","article-title":"Ghrelin: From a gut hormone to a potential therapeutic target for alcohol use disorder","volume":"204","author":"Farokhnia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1111\/bcp.13127","article-title":"Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of PF-05190457: The first oral ghrelin receptor inverse agonist to be profiled in healthy subjects","volume":"83","author":"Denney","year":"2016","journal-title":"Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107788","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2019.107788","article-title":"Endocrine effects of the novel ghrelin receptor inverse agonist PF-5190457: Results from a placebo-controlled human laboratory alcohol co-administration study in heavy drinkers","volume":"170","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"471","DOI":"10.1007\/s40262-020-00942-7","article-title":"A Population Pharmacokinetic Analysis of PF-5190457, a Novel Ghrelin Receptor Inverse Agonist in Healthy Volunteers and in Heavy Alcohol Drinkers","volume":"60","author":"Cobbina","year":"2021","journal-title":"Clin. Pharmacokinet."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"875","DOI":"10.1007\/s40263-014-0178-y","article-title":"Role of Appetite-Regulating Peptides in the Pathophysiology of Addiction: Implications for Pharmacotherapy","volume":"28","author":"Engel","year":"2014","journal-title":"CNS Drugs"},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2725","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-014-3640-0","article-title":"The role of ghrelin in addiction: A review","volume":"231","author":"Panagopoulos","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.irn.2017.08.002","article-title":"The Role of the Ghrelin System in Drug Addiction","volume":"136","author":"Zallar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. Rev. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/s002130000493","article-title":"Alterations in dopaminergic and glutamatergic transmission in the induction and ex-pression of behavioral sensitization: A critical review of preclinical studies","volume":"151","author":"Vanderschuren","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1124\/pr.109.001933","article-title":"Drug Wanting: Behavioral Sensitization and Relapse to Drug-Seeking Behavior","volume":"63","author":"Steketee","year":"2011","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1093\/alcalc\/agv100","article-title":"Sub-chronic Ghrelin Receptor Blockade Attenuates Alcohol- and Amphetamine-Induced Locomotor Stimulation in Mice","volume":"51","author":"Suchankova","year":"2015","journal-title":"Alcohol Alcohol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1007\/s002130000569","article-title":"Conditioned place preference: What does it add to our preclinical understanding of drug reward?","volume":"153","author":"Bardo","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/S0014-2999(99)00372-6","article-title":"Drug addiction as dopamine-dependent associative learning disorder","volume":"375","year":"1999","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.31887\/DCNS.2017.19.3\/rspanagel","article-title":"Animal models of addiction","volume":"19","author":"Spanagel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Dialogues Clin. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/0893-133X(95)00274-H","article-title":"Preclinical evaluation of pharmacotherapies for treatment of cocaine and opioid abuse using drug self-administration procedures","volume":"14","author":"Mello","year":"1996","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2011.06.001","article-title":"Neurobiology of the incubation of drug craving","volume":"34","author":"Pickens","year":"2011","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"188","DOI":"10.1093\/abbs\/gmp001","article-title":"Ghrelin fluctuation, what determines its production?","volume":"41","author":"Yin","year":"2009","journal-title":"Acta Biochim. Biophys. Sin."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1714","DOI":"10.2337\/diabetes.50.8.1714","article-title":"A Preprandial Rise in Plasma Ghrelin Levels Suggests a Role in Meal Initiation in Humans","volume":"50","author":"Cummings","year":"2001","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"682","DOI":"10.1038\/oby.2002.92","article-title":"Effect of Food Restriction on Ghrelin in Normal-Cycling Female Rats and in Pregnancy","volume":"10","author":"Gualillo","year":"2002","journal-title":"Obes. Res."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.2188\/jea.JE20190344","article-title":"Tack SHSPI Who Smokes in Europe? Data From 12 European Countries in the TackSHS Survey (2017\u20132018)","volume":"31","author":"Gallus","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Epidemiol."},{"key":"ref_114","unstructured":"(2021). Special Eurobarometer 506: Attitudes of Europeans towards Tobacco and Electronic Cigarettes, European Union Luxembourg."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1177\/2042098614524430","article-title":"Safety evaluation and risk assessment of electronic cigarettes as tobacco cigarette substitutes: A systematic review","volume":"5","author":"Farsalinos","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Drug Saf."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jankowski, M., Krzystanek, M., Zejda, J.E., Majek, P., Lubanski, J., Lawson, J.A., and Brozek, G. (2019). E-Cigarettes are More Addictive than Traditional Cigarettes\u2014A Study in Highly Educated Young People. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph16132279"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1002\/syn.20066","article-title":"The hedonic response to cigarette smoking is proportional to dopamine release in the human striatum as measured by positron emission tomography and [11C]raclopride","volume":"54","author":"Barrett","year":"2004","journal-title":"Synapse"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1016\/S0896-6273(02)00625-6","article-title":"Synaptic mechanisms underlie nicotine-induced excitability of brain reward areas","volume":"33","author":"Mansvelder","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_119","first-page":"a012146","article-title":"The \u201cStop\u201d and \u201cGo\u201d of Nicotine Dependence: Role of GABA and Glutamate","volume":"3","author":"Markou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_120","first-page":"356","article-title":"From nicotine dependence to addictology","volume":"62","author":"Aubin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Rev. Prat."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"832","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.12167","article-title":"Nicotine enhances modulation of food-cue reactivity by leptin and ghrelin in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex","volume":"20","author":"Kroemer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2008.06.008","article-title":"The effect of food deprivation on cigarette smoking in females","volume":"33","author":"Kendzor","year":"2008","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.2131\/jts.37.131","article-title":"Changes of ghrelin and leptin levels in plasma by cigarette smoke in rats","volume":"37","author":"Tomoda","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Toxicol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1093\/ntr\/nts113","article-title":"Effects of cigarette smoke exposure and its cessation on body weight, food intake and circulating leptin, and ghrelin levels in the rat","volume":"15","author":"Ypsilantis","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nicotine Tob. Res."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881","DOI":"10.1113\/EP085015","article-title":"Effects of different routes of nicotine administration on gastric morphology and hormonal secretion in rats","volume":"100","author":"Ali","year":"2015","journal-title":"Exp. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1989","DOI":"10.1007\/s11064-013-1105-1","article-title":"Ghrelin and Nicotine Stimulate Equally the Dopamine Release in the Rat Amygdala","volume":"38","author":"Palotai","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1007\/s00726-012-1355-2","article-title":"The 1,2,4-triazole as a scaffold for the design of ghrelin receptor ligands: Development of JMV 2959, a potent antagonist","volume":"44","author":"Moulin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Amino Acids"},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2011.01.010","article-title":"Ghrelin receptor antagonism attenuates nicotine-induced locomotor stimulation, accumbal dopamine release and conditioned place preference in mice","volume":"117","author":"Jerlhag","year":"2011","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.regpep.2011.08.014","article-title":"Pharmacologic antagonism of ghrelin receptors attenuates development of nicotine induced locomotor sensitization in rats","volume":"172","author":"Wellman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Regul. Pept."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1519","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1530-0277.2010.01236.x","article-title":"Genetic Variation of the Ghrelin Signaling System in Females with Severe Alcohol Dependence","volume":"34","author":"Landgren","year":"2010","journal-title":"Alcohol. Clin. Exp. Res."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.12277","article-title":"Genetic variation of the growth hormone secretagogue receptor gene is associated with alcohol use disorders identification test scores and smoking","volume":"21","author":"Suchankova","year":"2015","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"777","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2005.065243","article-title":"Smoking Acutely Increases Plasma Ghrelin Concentrations","volume":"52","author":"Bouros","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1016\/j.metabol.2006.11.012","article-title":"Differentiation in the short- and long-term effects of smoking on plasma total ghrelin concentrations between male nonsmokers and habitual smokers","volume":"56","author":"Kokkinos","year":"2007","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1155\/2014\/575671","article-title":"Acute One-Cigarette Smoking Decreases Ghrelin Hormone in Saliva: A Pilot Study","volume":"2014","author":"Kaabi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"384","DOI":"10.1002\/hup.2405","article-title":"Nicotine administration in healthy non-smokers reduces appetite but does not alter plasma ghrelin","volume":"29","author":"Pilhatsch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Hum. Psychopharmacol. Clin. Exp."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1159\/000092807","article-title":"Maternal and Cord Blood Ghrelin in the Pregnancies of Smoking Mothers: Possible Markers of Nutrient Availability for the Fetus","volume":"66","author":"Rouleau","year":"2006","journal-title":"Horm. Res. Paediatr."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2796.2006.01661.x","article-title":"Plasma ghrelin concentrations are positively associated with carotid artery atherosclerosis in males","volume":"260","author":"Kellokoski","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1159\/000381834","article-title":"Effects of Cigarette Smoking on Plasma Concentration of the Appetite-Regulating Peptide Ghrelin","volume":"66","author":"Koopmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ann. Nutr. Metab."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1460","DOI":"10.1016\/S0026-0495(03)00274-9","article-title":"Plasma ghrelin, body fat, insulin resistance, and smoking in clinically healthy men: The atherosclerosis and insulin resistance study","volume":"52","author":"Fagerberg","year":"2003","journal-title":"Metabolism"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6448","DOI":"10.1210\/jc.2005-1358","article-title":"Ghrelin and the Metabolic Syndrome in Older Adults","volume":"90","author":"Langenberg","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab."},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"748","DOI":"10.1080\/15622975.2019.1671610","article-title":"Higher fasting ghrelin serum levels in active smokers than in former and never-smokers","volume":"21","author":"Wittekind","year":"2020","journal-title":"World J. Biol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2014.07.018","article-title":"Peptide YY and ghrelin predict craving and risk for relapse in abstinent smokers","volume":"49","author":"Lemieux","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsycho.2017.03.007","article-title":"Changes in circulating peptide YY and ghrelin are associated with early smoking relapse","volume":"131","author":"Lemieux","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biol. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2006.09.013","article-title":"Increased leptin and decreased ghrelin level after smoking cessation","volume":"409","author":"Lee","year":"2006","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106866","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2021.106866","article-title":"Early life adversity and appetite hormones: The effects of smoking status, nicotine withdrawal, and relapse on ghrelin and peptide YY during smoking cessation","volume":"118","author":"DeAngelis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Addict. Behav."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-018-0135-5","article-title":"Ghrelin is a persistent biomarker for chronic stress expo-sure in adolescent rats and humans","volume":"8","author":"Yousufzai","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_147","unstructured":"(2020). European Drug Report 2020: Trends and Developments, European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (EMCDDA), Publications Office of the European Union Luxembourg."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5300","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.091039298","article-title":"Molecular mechanisms of cocaine reward: Combined dopamine and serotonin transporter knockouts eliminate cocaine place preference","volume":"98","author":"Sora","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1007\/s12035-009-8053-4","article-title":"A Closer Look at Amphetamine-Induced Reverse Transport and Trafficking of the Dopamine and Norepinephrine Transporters","volume":"39","author":"Robertson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mol. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"237","DOI":"10.1124\/jpet.106.103622","article-title":"Interaction of Amphetamines and Related Compounds at the Vesicular Monoamine Transporter","volume":"319","author":"Partilla","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1468","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1947.02880340022005","article-title":"The mechanism of amphetamine-induced loss of weight; a consideration of the theory of hunger and appetite","volume":"134","author":"Harris","year":"1947","journal-title":"J. Am. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-0348-8391-7_2","article-title":"Pharmacology of appetite suppression","volume":"54","author":"Halford","year":"2000","journal-title":"Prog. Drug Res."},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/0376-8716(85)90109-7","article-title":"The role of food deprivation in the maintenance and reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior in rats","volume":"16","author":"Carroll","year":"1985","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_154","first-page":"28","article-title":"Oral d-amphetamine and ketamine self-administration by rhesus monkeys: Effects of food deprivation","volume":"227","author":"Carroll","year":"1983","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2004.11.037","article-title":"Differential effects of methamphetamine on expression of neuropeptide Y mRNA in hypothalamus and on serum leptin and ghrelin concentrations in ad libitum-fed and schedule-fed rats","volume":"132","author":"Crowley","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1369-1600.2007.00083.x","article-title":"Changes in leptin, ghrelin, growth hormone and neuropeptide-Y after an acute model of MDMA and methamphetamine exposure in rats","volume":"13","author":"Kobeissy","year":"2007","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1369-1600.2007.00052.x","article-title":"Correlation between serum ghrelin levels and cocaine-seeking behaviour triggered by cocaine-associated conditioned stimuli in rats","volume":"12","author":"Tessari","year":"2007","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2018.11.001","article-title":"Cocaine and cocaine expectancy increase growth hormone, ghrelin, GLP-1, IGF-1, adiponectin, and corticosterone while decreasing leptin, insulin, GIP, and prolactin","volume":"176","author":"You","year":"2019","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"You, Z.B., Galaj, E., Alen, F., Wang, B., Bi, G.H., Moore, A.R., Buck, T., Crissman, M., Pari, S., and Xi, Z.X. (2021). Involvement of the ghrelin system in the maintenance and reinstatement of cocaine-motivated behaviors: A role of adrenergic action at peripheral beta1 receptors. Neuropsychopharmacology.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41386-021-01249-2"},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.regpep.2007.07.005","article-title":"The autonomic nervous system regulates gastric ghrelin secretion in rats","volume":"146","author":"Hosoda","year":"2008","journal-title":"Regul. Pept."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1016\/j.regpep.2004.08.013","article-title":"Augmentation of cocaine hyperactivity in rats by systemic ghrelin","volume":"125","author":"Wellman","year":"2005","journal-title":"Regul. Pept."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.regpep.2007.07.007","article-title":"Systemic ghrelin sensitizes cocaine-induced hyperlocomotion in rats","volume":"146","author":"Wellman","year":"2008","journal-title":"Regul. Pept."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2013.00171","article-title":"Ghrelin and ghrelin receptor modulation of psychostimulant action","volume":"7","author":"Wellman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.1159\/000066629","article-title":"The hypothalamic mecha-nisms of the hypophysiotropic action of ghrelin","volume":"76","author":"Wren","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1647","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9568.2004.03612.x","article-title":"The induction of behavioural sensitization is associated with cocaine-induced structural plasticity in the core (but not shell) of the nucleus accumbens","volume":"20","author":"Li","year":"2004","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6295","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.23-15-06295.2003","article-title":"Segregation of Amphetamine Reward and Locomotor Stimulation between Nucleus Accumbens Medial Shell and Core","volume":"23","author":"Sellings","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2013.03.049","article-title":"Microinjection of ghrelin in the nucleus accumbens core enhances locomotor activity induced by cocaine","volume":"248","author":"Jang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.12533","article-title":"Locomotor sensitization is expressed by ghrelin and D1 dopamine receptor agonist in the nucleus accumbens core in amphetamine pre-exposed rat","volume":"23","author":"Jang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"148","DOI":"10.1016\/j.regpep.2006.12.003","article-title":"Augmented cocaine conditioned place preference in rats pretreated with systemic ghrelin","volume":"140","author":"Davis","year":"2007","journal-title":"Regul. Pept."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.4236\/jbbs.2013.38060","article-title":"Microinjection of Ghrelin into the Ventral Tegmental Area Potentiates Cocaine-Induced Conditioned Place Preference","volume":"3","author":"Schuette","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Behav. Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134367","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2019.134367","article-title":"Role of mesolimbic ghrelin in the acquisition of cocaine reward","volume":"709","author":"Dunn","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2014.05.030","article-title":"Ghrelin alters the stimulatory effect of cocaine on ethanol intake following mesolimbic or systemic administration","volume":"85","author":"Cepko","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2011.08.037","article-title":"Ghrelin is an orexigenic peptide and elicits anxiety-like behaviors following administration into discrete regions of the hypothalamus","volume":"226","author":"Currie","year":"2012","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2003.11.150","article-title":"Differential role of the hippocampus, amygdala, and dorsal raphe nucleus in regulating feeding, memory, and anxiety-like behavioral responses to ghrelin","volume":"313","author":"Carlini","year":"2004","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-010-1907-7","article-title":"Ghrelin receptor antagonism attenuates cocaine- and amphetamine-induced locomotor stimulation, accumbal dopamine release, and conditioned place preference","volume":"211","author":"Jerlhag","year":"2010","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"956","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1369-1600.2011.00339.x","article-title":"Attenuation of cocaine-induced locomotor sensitization in rats sustaining genetic or pharmacologic antagonism of ghrelin receptors","volume":"17","author":"Clifford","year":"2012","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Havlickova, T., Charalambous, C., Lapka, M., Puskina, N., Jerabek, P., and Sustkova-Fiserova, M. (2018). Ghrelin Receptor Antagonism of Methamphetamine-Induced Conditioned Place Preference and Intravenous Self-Administration in Rats. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19102925"},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174039","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ejphar.2021.174039","article-title":"A ghrelin receptor antagonist reduces the ability of ghrelin, alcohol or amphetamine to induce a dopamine release in the ventral tegmental area and in nucleus accumbens shell in rats","volume":"899","author":"Edvardsson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-3940(92)90861-Z","article-title":"Eating and drinking cause in-creased dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area in the rat: Measurement by in vivo microdi-alysis","volume":"139","author":"Yoshida","year":"1992","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_180","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-3940(89)90492-8","article-title":"Cocaine increases extracellular dopamine in rat nucleus accumbens and ventral tegmental area as shown by in vivo microdialysis","volume":"103","author":"Bradberry","year":"1989","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_181","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-3940(89)90687-3","article-title":"Somatodendritic release of endogenous dopamine: In vivo dialysis in the A10 dopamine region","volume":"100","author":"Kalivas","year":"1989","journal-title":"Neurosci. Lett."},{"key":"ref_182","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"391","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neures.2005.08.013","article-title":"Ghrelin precursor gene polymorphism and methamphetamine dependence in the Korean population","volume":"53","author":"Yoon","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neurosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_183","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suchankova, P., Jerlhag, E., Jayaram-Lindstrom, N., Nilsson, S., Tor\u00e9n, K., Rosengren, A., Engel, J.A., and Franck, J. (2013). Genetic Variation of the Ghrelin Signalling System in Individuals with Amphetamine Dependence. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0061242"},{"key":"ref_184","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"68","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2017.07.033","article-title":"Acute effects of intravenous cocaine administration on serum concentrations of ghrelin, amylin, glucagon-like peptide-1, insulin, leptin and peptide YY and relationships with cardiorespiratory and subjective responses","volume":"180","author":"Bouhlal","year":"2017","journal-title":"Drug Alcohol Depend."},{"key":"ref_185","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.3109\/13651501.2014.940054","article-title":"Effect of methylphenidate treatment on appetite and levels of leptin, ghrelin, adiponectin, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor in children and adolescents with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder","volume":"18","author":"Sahin","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Psychiatry Clin. Pract."},{"key":"ref_186","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"500","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2011.06.001","article-title":"Reduced locomotor responses to cocaine in ghrelin-deficient mice","volume":"192","author":"Abizaid","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_187","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2018.00654","article-title":"Pharmacotoxicology of Non-fentanyl Derived New Synthetic Opioids","volume":"9","author":"Solimini","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_188","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3321","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.22-09-03321.2002","article-title":"Neural systems underlying opiate addiction","volume":"22","author":"Shippenberg","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_189","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2015.01.002","article-title":"Understanding opioid reward","volume":"38","author":"Fields","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_190","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-4522(92)90430-A","article-title":"Topography and functional role of dopaminergic projections from the ventral mesencephalic tegmentum to the ventral pallidum","volume":"50","author":"Klitenick","year":"1992","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_191","first-page":"613","article-title":"Increased mesolimbic GABA concentration blocks heroin self-administration in the rat","volume":"294","author":"Xi","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther."},{"key":"ref_192","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pbb.2005.01.031","article-title":"Endocannabinoid system and opioid addiction: Behavioural aspects","volume":"81","author":"Fattore","year":"2005","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav."},{"key":"ref_193","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2006.01.008","article-title":"Involvement of the endocannabinoid system in drug addiction","volume":"29","author":"Maldonado","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_194","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5344","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.21-14-05344.2001","article-title":"Functional Interaction between Opioid and Cannabinoid Receptors in Drug Self-Administration","volume":"21","author":"Navarro","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_195","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3695","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4403-06.2007","article-title":"Specific alterations of extracellular endocannabinoid levels in the nucleus accumbens by ethanol, heroin, and cocaine self-administration","volume":"27","author":"Caille","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_196","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"389","DOI":"10.1016\/S0031-9384(02)00758-8","article-title":"Like drugs for chocolate: Separate rewards modulated by common mechanisms?","volume":"76","author":"Grigson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_197","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.peptides.2011.05.016","article-title":"Ghrelin and food reward: The story of potential underlying substrates","volume":"32","author":"Skibicka","year":"2011","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_198","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1369-1600.2010.00294.x","article-title":"Role of ghrelin in food reward: Impact of ghrelin on sucrose self-administration and mesolimbic dopamine and acetylcholine receptor gene expression","volume":"17","author":"Skibicka","year":"2012","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_199","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2012.11.022","article-title":"Food reward-sensitive interaction of ghrelin and opioid receptor pathways in mesolimbic dopamine system","volume":"67","author":"Kawahara","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuropharmacology"},{"key":"ref_200","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kola, B., Farkas, I., Christ-Crain, M., Wittmann, G., Lolli, F., Amin, F., Harvey-White, J., Liposits, Z., Kunos, G., and Grossman, A.B. (2008). The Orexigenic Effect of Ghrelin Is Mediated through Central Activation of the Endogenous Cannabinoid System. PLoS ONE, 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0001797"},{"key":"ref_201","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1007\/s002130000441","article-title":"Stress and relapse to drug seeking in rats: Studies on the generality of the effect","volume":"150","author":"Shalev","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_202","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-012-2810-1","article-title":"The effects of chronic food restriction on cue-induced heroin seeking in abstinent male rats","volume":"225","author":"Sedki","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_203","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1369-1600.2011.00396.x","article-title":"A limited role for ghrelin in heroin self-administration and food deprivation-induced reinstatement of heroin seeking in rats","volume":"17","author":"Maric","year":"2012","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_204","first-page":"787","article-title":"A role for leptin and ghrelin in the augmentation of heroin seeking induced by chronic food restriction","volume":"237","author":"Chisholm","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_205","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2899","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-014-3466-9","article-title":"Ghrelin receptor antagonism of morphine-induced accumbens dopamine release and behavioral stimulation in rats","volume":"231","author":"Jerabek","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_206","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12845","DOI":"10.1111\/adb.12845","article-title":"Ghrelin receptor antagonism of fentanyl-induced conditioned place preference, intravenous self-administration, and dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens in rats","volume":"25","author":"Puskina","year":"2020","journal-title":"Addict. Biol."},{"key":"ref_207","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2364","DOI":"10.1016\/j.euroneuro.2015.10.004","article-title":"A ghrelin receptor (GHS-R1A) antagonist attenuates the rewarding properties of morphine and increases opioid peptide levels in reward areas in mice","volume":"25","author":"Engel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. Neuropsychopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_208","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuint.2017.09.013","article-title":"Ghrelin receptor antagonism of morphine-induced conditioned place preference and behavioral and accumbens dopaminergic sensitization in rats","volume":"110","author":"Jerabek","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurochem. Int."},{"key":"ref_209","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718615","DOI":"10.3389\/fphar.2021.718615","article-title":"Growth Hormone Secretagogue Receptor 1A Antagonist JMV2959 Effectively Prevents Morphine Memory Reconsolidation and Relapse","volume":"12","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_210","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1007\/s00213-015-4119-3","article-title":"Ghrelin and endocannabinoids participation in morphine-induced effects in the rat nucleus accumbens","volume":"233","author":"Jerabek","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_211","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sustkova-Fiserova, M., Charalambous, C., Havlickova, T., Lapka, M., Jerabek, P., Puskina, N., and Syslova, K. (2017). Alterations in Rat Accumbens Endocannabinoid and GABA Content during Fentanyl Treatment: The Role of Ghrelin. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms18112486"},{"key":"ref_212","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.5152\/alphapsychiatry.2021.2056","article-title":"The Relationship of Serum Leptin and Ghrelin Levels with Craving and Withdrawal in Opioid Use Disorder","volume":"22","author":"Kara","year":"2021","journal-title":"Alpha Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_213","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1515\/jcim-2014-0006","article-title":"The effect of hydroalcoholic extract of Cannabis Sativa on appetite hormone in rat","volume":"11","author":"Mazidi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Complement. Integr. Med."},{"key":"ref_214","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.2478\/v10042-008-0033-4","article-title":"Cannabinoids enhance gastric X\/A-like cells activity","volume":"46","author":"Zbucki","year":"2008","journal-title":"Folia Histochem. Cytobiol."},{"key":"ref_215","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Charalambous, C., Havlickova, T., Lapka, M., Puskina, N., \u0160lamberov\u00e1, R., Kuchar, M., and Sustkova-Fiserova, M. (2021). Cannabinoid-Induced Conditioned Place Preference, Intravenous Self-Administration, and Behavioral Stimulation Influenced by Ghrelin Receptor Antagonism in Rats. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22052397"},{"key":"ref_216","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Charalambous, C., Lapka, M., Havlickova, T., Syslova, K., and Sustkova-Fiserova, M. (2020). Alterations in Rat Accumbens Dopamine, Endocannabinoids and GABA Content During WIN55,212-2 Treatment: The Role of Ghrelin. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22010210"},{"key":"ref_217","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2011.11.001","article-title":"A pilot study of the effects of cannabis on appetite hormones in HIV-infected adult men","volume":"1431","author":"Riggs","year":"2012","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_218","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2029","DOI":"10.1038\/mp.2017.226","article-title":"Exogenous Ghrelin Administration Increases Alcohol Self-Administration and Modulates Brain Functional Activity in Heavy-Drinking Alcohol-Dependent Individuals","volume":"23","author":"Farokhnia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mol. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_219","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1038\/s41398-020-0756-3","article-title":"Effects of oral, smoked, and vaporized cannabis on endocrine pathways related to appetite and metabolism: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, human laboratory study","volume":"10","author":"Farokhnia","year":"2020","journal-title":"Transl. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_220","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1038\/npp.2017.198","article-title":"US Epidemiology of Cannabis Use and Associated Problems","volume":"43","author":"Hasin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuropsychopharmacology"},{"key":"ref_221","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"438","DOI":"10.1007\/s11481-018-9782-9","article-title":"Cannabis Addiction and the Brain: A Review","volume":"13","author":"Zehra","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmune Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_222","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.7326\/M19-1105","article-title":"Pharmacotherapy for the Treatment of Cannabis Use Disorder: A Systematic Review","volume":"172","author":"Kondo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ann. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_223","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bcp.2018.09.013","article-title":"Role of the endocannabinoid system in drug addiction","volume":"157","author":"Manzanares","year":"2018","journal-title":"Biochem. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_224","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a012237","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a012237","article-title":"Synaptic targets of Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the central nervous system","volume":"3","author":"Hoffman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Med."},{"key":"ref_225","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2016.03.032","article-title":"Driving the need to feed: Insight into the collaborative interaction between ghrelin and endocannabinoid systems in modulating brain reward systems","volume":"66","author":"Edwards","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_226","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bjp.0705968","article-title":"The cannabinoid CB1 receptor antagonist SR141716 blocks the orexi-genic effects of intrahypothalamic ghrelin","volume":"143","author":"Tucci","year":"2004","journal-title":"Br. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_227","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Alen, F., Crespo, I., Ram\u00edrez-L\u00f3pez, M.T., Jagerovic, N., Goya, P., De Fonseca, F.R., De Heras, R.G., and Orio, L. (2013). Ghrelin-Induced Orexigenic Effect in Rats Depends on the Metabolic Status and Is Counteracted by Peripheral CB1 Receptor Antagonism. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0060918"},{"key":"ref_228","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2017.12.005","article-title":"A cannabinoid receptor antagonist attenuates ghrelin-induced activation of the mesolimbic dopamine system in mice","volume":"184","author":"Kalafateli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_229","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"821","DOI":"10.1530\/EJE-13-0072","article-title":"The phar-macokinetics of acyl, des-acyl, and total ghrelin in healthy human subjects","volume":"168","author":"Tong","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_230","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yhbeh.2015.11.005","article-title":"Ghrelin enhances cue-induced bar pressing for high fat food","volume":"78","author":"Watts","year":"2016","journal-title":"Horm. Behav."},{"key":"ref_231","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Suchankova, P., Steensland, P., Fredriksson, I., Engel, J.A., and Jerlhag, E. (2013). Ghrelin Receptor (GHS-R1A) Antagonism Suppresses Both Alcohol Consumption and the Alcohol Deprivation Effect in Rats following Long-Term Voluntary Alcohol Consumption. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0071284"},{"key":"ref_232","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/S0083-6729(06)77004-2","article-title":"The growth hormone secretagogue receptor","volume":"77","author":"Cruz","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vitam. Horm."},{"key":"ref_233","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1969","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2006.06.010","article-title":"Contribution of monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibition to tobacco and alcohol addiction","volume":"79","author":"Talhout","year":"2006","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_234","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"226","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pharmthera.2014.06.002","article-title":"Mitoepigenetics and drug addiction","volume":"144","author":"Frankowska","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pharmacol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_235","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1083\/jcb.32.3.719","article-title":"The submitochondrial localization of monoamine oxidase. An enzymatic marker for the outer membrane of rat liver mitochondria","volume":"32","author":"Schnaitman","year":"1967","journal-title":"J. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_236","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2310","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1471-4159.1999.0732310.x","article-title":"Monoamine Oxidase and Mitochondrial Respiration","volume":"73","author":"Cohen","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Neurochem."},{"key":"ref_237","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1002\/1873-3468.12964","article-title":"Role of mitochondrial ROS in the brain: From physiology to neurodegeneration","volume":"592","author":"Angelova","year":"2018","journal-title":"FEBS Lett."},{"key":"ref_238","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101936","DOI":"10.1016\/j.npep.2019.05.007","article-title":"Protective effects of ghrelin on brain mitochondria after cardiac arrest and resuscitation","volume":"76","author":"Xu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neuropeptides"}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/23\/2\/761\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,13]],"date-time":"2025-10-13T14:02:01Z","timestamp":1760364121000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/23\/2\/761"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,11]]},"references-count":238,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms23020761"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms23020761","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,11]]}}}