{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]],"date-time":"2026-04-13T20:19:30Z","timestamp":1776111570391,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":211,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]],"date-time":"2022-01-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1643328000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is caused by loss-of-function mutations in the dystrophin gene on chromosome Xp21. Disruption of the dystrophin\u2013glycoprotein complex (DGC) on the cell membrane causes cytosolic Ca2+ influx, resulting in protease activation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and progressive myofiber degeneration, leading to muscle wasting and fragility. In addition to the function of dystrophin in the structural integrity of myofibers, a novel function of asymmetric cell division in muscular stem cells (satellite cells) has been reported. Therefore, it has been suggested that myofiber instability may not be the only cause of dystrophic degeneration, but rather that the phenotype might be caused by multiple factors, including stem cell and myofiber functions. Furthermore, it has been focused functional regulation of satellite cells by intracellular communication of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in DMD pathology. Recently, a novel molecular mechanism of DMD pathogenesis\u2014circulating RNA molecules\u2014has been revealed through the study of target pathways modulated by the Neutral sphingomyelinase2\/Neutral sphingomyelinase3 (nSMase2\/Smpd3) protein. In addition, adeno-associated virus (AAV) has been clinically applied for DMD therapy owing to the safety and long-term expression of transduction genes. Furthermore, the EV-capsulated AAV vector (EV-AAV) has been shown to be a useful tool for the intervention of DMD, because of the high efficacy of the transgene and avoidance of neutralizing antibodies. Thus, we review application of AAV and EV-AAV vectors for DMD as novel therapeutic strategy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23031551","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,29]],"date-time":"2022-01-29T05:26:17Z","timestamp":1643433977000},"page":"1551","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Therapeutic Application of Extracellular Vesicles-Capsulated Adeno-Associated Virus Vector via nSMase2\/Smpd3, Satellite, and Immune Cells in Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Yasunari","family":"Matsuzaka","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Molecular and Medical Genetics, Center for Gene and Cell Therapy, The Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan"},{"name":"Administrative Section of Radiation Protection, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8551, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yukihiko","family":"Hirai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Molecular and Medical Genetics, Center for Gene and Cell Therapy, The Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kazuo","family":"Hashido","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Administrative Section of Radiation Protection, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8551, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2910-3797","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Takashi","family":"Okada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Molecular and Medical Genetics, Center for Gene and Cell Therapy, The Institute of Medical Science, University of Tokyo, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8639, Japan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1016\/0092-8674(87)90579-4","article-title":"Dystrophin: The protein product of the Duchenne muscular dystrophy locus","volume":"51","author":"Hoffman","year":"1987","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1126\/science.3659917","article-title":"Conservation of the Duchenne muscular dystrophy gene in mice and humans","volume":"238","author":"Hoffman","year":"1987","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3879","DOI":"10.1111\/febs.15466","article-title":"The discovery of dystrophin, the protein product of the Duchenne muscular dystrophy gene","volume":"287","author":"Hoffman","year":"2020","journal-title":"FEBS J."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yjmcc.2012.12.009","article-title":"Cardiac phenotype of Duchenne Muscular Dystrophy: Insights from cellular studies","volume":"58","author":"Shirokova","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. 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