{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T19:08:27Z","timestamp":1792696107179,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":112,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,6]],"date-time":"2022-02-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1644105600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003977","name":"Israel Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["039-4964"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["039-4964"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003977","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Bipolar disorder (BD) is a severe psychiatric illness with a poor prognosis and problematic, suboptimal, treatments. Treatments, borne of an understanding of the pathoetiologic mechanisms, need to be developed in order to improve outcomes. Dysregulation of cationic homeostasis is the most reproducible aspect of BD pathophysiology. Correction of ionic balance is the universal mechanism of action of all mood stabilizing medications. Endogenous sodium pump modulators (collectively known as endogenous cardiac steroids, ECS) are steroids which are synthesized in and released from the adrenal gland and brain. These compounds, by activating or inhibiting Na+, K+-ATPase activity and activating intracellular signaling cascades, have numerous effects on cell survival, vascular tone homeostasis, inflammation, and neuronal activity. For the past twenty years we have addressed the hypothesis that the Na+, K+-ATPase-ECS system may be involved in the etiology of BD. This is a focused review that presents a comprehensive model pertaining to the role of ECS in the etiology of BD. We propose that alterations in ECS metabolism in the brain cause numerous biochemical changes that underlie brain dysfunction and mood symptoms. This is based on both animal models and translational human results. There are data that demonstrate that excess ECS induce abnormal mood and activity in animals, while a specific removal of ECS with antibodies normalizes mood. There are also data indicating that circulating levels of ECS are lower in manic individuals, and that patients with BD are unable to upregulate synthesis of ECS under conditions that increase their elaboration in non-psychiatric controls. There is strong evidence for the involvement of ion dysregulation and ECS function in bipolar illness. Additional research is required to fully characterize these abnormalities and define future clinical directions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23031846","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,6]],"date-time":"2022-02-06T20:36:47Z","timestamp":1644179807000},"page":"1846","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Endogenous Cardiac Steroids in Bipolar Disorder: State of the Art"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Rif S.","family":"El-Mallakh","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Mood Disorders Research Program, Depression Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40202, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vishnu Priya","family":"Sampath","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Neurobiology, Faculty of Medicine, The Institute for Medical Research, Israel-Canada, Hadassah Medical School, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 9112102, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Noa","family":"Horesh","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Neurobiology, Faculty of Medicine, The Institute for Medical Research, Israel-Canada, Hadassah Medical School, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 9112102, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David","family":"Lichtstein","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Neurobiology, Faculty of Medicine, The Institute for Medical Research, Israel-Canada, Hadassah Medical School, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem 9112102, Israel"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.v63n0210","article-title":"Stabilization of mood from below versus above baseline in bipolar disorder: A new nomenclature","volume":"63","author":"Ketter","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. 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