{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,30]],"date-time":"2026-08-30T13:24:16Z","timestamp":1788096256525,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":52,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,25]],"date-time":"2022-02-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1645747200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Laird\u2019s Large tamarillo powder is high in protein (10%) essential amino acids (EAAs), gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and polyphenols (0.6% phenolics plus anthocyanins) and fibre 25%. This study aimed to investigate, using a standardized static in vitro digestion model, the stability of amino acids and antioxidant capacity of polyphenols in yoghurt fortified with 5, 10 and 15% tamarillo powder either before (PRE) or after (POS) fermentation. Compared to plain yoghurt, the fruit polyphenols (rutinosides and glycosides) were retained and substantial increases in FEAAs (free essential amino acids), total phenolic content (TPC) and antioxidant activity were observed particularly at the end of intestinal phase of digestion. Together with SDS-PAGE results, peptides and proteins in tamarillo yoghurts were more easily digested and therefore may be better absorbed in the small intestine compared to the control. TPC and antioxidant activity of fortified yoghurts increased significantly after in vitro digestion. Relatively high bioaccessibilty of chlorogenic acid and kaempferol-3-rutinoside in digested PRE samples was observed. The results suggest that the yoghurt matrix might protect some compounds from degradation, increasing bioaccessibility and in the small intestine allow increased absorption and utilization possible. Fortification would deliver intact polyphenols and fibre to the large intestine and improve gut health. Further research of acceptability, shelf life, and then trials for health effects should be implemented.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23052526","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,25]],"date-time":"2022-02-25T10:00:40Z","timestamp":1645783240000},"page":"2526","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Effect of In Vitro Gastrointestinal Digestion on Amino Acids, Polyphenols and Antioxidant Capacity of Tamarillo Yoghurts"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3984-4230","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tung Thanh","family":"Diep","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science, Faculty of Health and Environment Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Private Bag 92006, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"},{"name":"Riddet Institute, Centre of Research Excellence, Massey University, Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3758-5298","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michelle Ji Yeon","family":"Yoo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science, Faculty of Health and Environment Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Private Bag 92006, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"},{"name":"Riddet Institute, Centre of Research Excellence, Massey University, Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7713-6203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elaine","family":"Rush","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Riddet Institute, Centre of Research Excellence, Massey University, Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand"},{"name":"School of Sport and Recreation, Faculty of Health and Environment Sciences, Auckland University of Technology, Private Bag 92006, Auckland 1142, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3119","DOI":"10.1080\/10408398.2020.1793730","article-title":"Plant-based food and protein trend from a business perspective: Markets, consumers, and the challenges and opportunities in the future","volume":"61","author":"Gantriis","year":"2021","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dreher, M.L. (2018). Whole fruits and fruit fiber emerging health effects. Nutrients, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu10121833"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103563","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2020.103563","article-title":"Physicochemical properties and proximate composition of tamarillo (Solanum betaceum Cav.) fruits from New Zealand","volume":"92","author":"Diep","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Food Compost. Anal."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Diep, T., Pook, C., and Yoo, M. (2020). Phenolic and Anthocyanin Compounds and Antioxidant Activity of Tamarillo (Solanum betaceum Cav.). Antioxidants, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox9020169"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2008.09.010","article-title":"Cyphomandra betacea Sendt. phenolics protect LDL from oxidation and PC12 cells from oxidative stress","volume":"42","author":"Kou","year":"2009","journal-title":"LWT Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"846041","article-title":"Protective Effects of Tamarillo (Cyphomandra betacea) Extract against High Fat Diet Induced Obesity in Sprague-Dawley Rats","volume":"2015","author":"Rahmat","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Obes."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2105","DOI":"10.1186\/s40064-016-3777-x","article-title":"Phenolics profile and anti-proliferative activity of Cyphomandra betacea fruit in breast and liver cancer cells","volume":"5","author":"Mutalib","year":"2016","journal-title":"SpringerPlus"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.21315\/mjms2017.24.5.3","article-title":"Nutritional Compositions and Antiproliferative Activities of Different Solvent Fractions from Ethanol Extract of Cyphomandra betacea (Tamarillo) Fruit","volume":"24","author":"Mutalib","year":"2017","journal-title":"Malays. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.peptides.2005.11.016","article-title":"Antimicrobial activity of glycosidase inhibitory protein isolated from Cyphomandra betacea Sendt. fruit","volume":"27","author":"Ordonez","year":"2006","journal-title":"Peptides"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1016\/j.supflu.2012.10.006","article-title":"Supercritical fluid extracts from tamarillo (Solanum betaceum Sendtn) epicarp and its application as protectors against lipid oxidation of cooked beef meat","volume":"76","author":"Benelli","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Supercrit. Fluids"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1111\/nure.12114","article-title":"Dietary factors affecting polyphenol bioavailability","volume":"72","author":"Bohn","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1611","DOI":"10.1039\/C5FO00198F","article-title":"Stability of polyphenols and carotenoids in strawberry and peach yoghurt throughout in vitro gastrointestinal digestion","volume":"6","author":"Oliveira","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2019.07.049","article-title":"Protein\u2013polyphenol conjugates: Antioxidant property, functionalities and their applications","volume":"91","author":"Quan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9987","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2017-12981","article-title":"A 100-Year Review: Yogurt and other cultured dairy products","volume":"100","author":"Aryana","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"164","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2017.10.047","article-title":"Impact of in-vitro gastro-pancreatic digestion on polyphenols and cinnamaldehyde bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity in stirred cinnamon-fortified yogurt","volume":"89","author":"Helal","year":"2018","journal-title":"LWT"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109571","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2020.109571","article-title":"Incorporation of anthocyanin-rich riceberry rice in yogurts: Effect on physicochemical properties, antioxidant activity and in vitro gastrointestinal digestion","volume":"129","author":"Anuyahong","year":"2020","journal-title":"LWT"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11056","DOI":"10.1021\/jf302694a","article-title":"The type and concentration of milk increase the in vitro bioaccessibility of coffee chlorogenic acids","volume":"60","author":"Tagliazucchi","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4869","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2017-14050","article-title":"Effect of temperature and pH on the properties of skim milk gels made from a tamarillo (Cyphomandra betacea) coagulant and rennet","volume":"101","author":"Li","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2014.08.107","article-title":"Incorporation of strawberries preparation in yoghurt: Impact on phytochemicals and milk proteins","volume":"171","author":"Oliveira","year":"2015","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6842","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2017-14284","article-title":"Gastric digestion of milk protein ingredients: Study using an in vitro dynamic model","volume":"101","author":"Wang","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2014.01.026","article-title":"In vitro gastrointestinal digestion of liquid and semi-liquid dairy matrixes","volume":"57","author":"Rinaldi","year":"2014","journal-title":"LWT Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Diep, T.T., Yoo, M.J.Y., and Rush, E. (2022). Effect of Tamarillo Fortification and Fermentation Process on Physicochemical Properties and Nutrient and Volatiles Content of Yoghurt. Foods, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods11010079"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"399","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2018.04.019","article-title":"Impact of the dairy product structure and protein nature on the proteolysis and amino acid bioaccessiblity during in vitro digestion","volume":"82","author":"Lorieau","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2009.08.010","article-title":"In vitro digestibility of \u03b2-casein and \u03b2-lactoglobulin under simulated human gastric and duodenal conditions: A multi-laboratory evaluation","volume":"55","author":"Mandalari","year":"2009","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108996","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2020.108996","article-title":"Protein digestion of different protein sources using the INFOGEST static digestion model","volume":"130","author":"Sousa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idairyj.2019.06.002","article-title":"Dynamic in vitro gastric digestion of infant formulae made with goat milk and cow milk: Influence of protein composition","volume":"97","author":"Ye","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Dairy J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hertzler, S.R., Lieblein-Boff, J.C., Weiler, M., and Allgeier, C. (2020). Plant proteins: Assessing their nutritional quality and effects on health and physical function. Nutrients, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu12123704"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"584","DOI":"10.1093\/nutrit\/nuw022","article-title":"Protein quality as determined by the Digestible Indispensable Amino Acid Score: Evaluation of factors underlying the calculation","volume":"74","author":"Wolfe","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nutr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"390","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2018.09.022","article-title":"Developing functional yogurt rich in bioactive peptides and gamma-aminobutyric acid related to cardiovascular health","volume":"98","author":"Sakr","year":"2018","journal-title":"LWT"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2013.07.100","article-title":"Acid and rennet gels exhibit strong differences in the kinetics of milk protein digestion and amino acid bioavailability","volume":"143","author":"Famelart","year":"2014","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, R., Yoo, M.J., Realini, C.E., Staincliffe, M., and Farouk, M.M. (2021). In-Bag Dry-vs. Wet-Aged Lamb: Quality, Consumer Acceptability, Oxidative Stability and In Vitro Digestibility. Foods, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods10010041"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"450","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2013.01.011","article-title":"Drinking yoghurts with berry polyphenols added before and after fermentation","volume":"32","author":"Zhou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"148","article-title":"Optimization of extraction conditions and enhancement of phenolic content and antioxidant activity of pearl millet fermented with Aspergillus awamori MTCC-548","volume":"2","author":"Salar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Resour. Effic. Technol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1007\/s12257-011-0455-2","article-title":"Modulation of phenolic content and antioxidant activity of maize by solid state fermentation with Thamnidium elegans CCF 1456","volume":"17","author":"Salar","year":"2012","journal-title":"Biotechnol. Bioprocess Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adebo, O.A., and Gabriela Medina-Meza, I. (2020). Impact of fermentation on the phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of whole cereal grains: A mini review. Molecules, 25.","DOI":"10.3390\/molecules25040927"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1400","DOI":"10.1111\/1750-3841.15661","article-title":"In vitro phenols bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity of goat milk yogurt fortified with Rhus coriaria leaf powder","volume":"86","author":"Simonetti","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Food Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5990","DOI":"10.1039\/c3ay41125g","article-title":"The Folin\u2013Ciocalteu assay revisited: Improvement of its specificity for total phenolic content determination","volume":"5","author":"Benavides","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anal. Methods"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"997","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.5b04739","article-title":"Antioxidant activity\/capacity measurement. 1. Classification, physicochemical principles, mechanisms, and electron transfer (ET)-based assays","volume":"64","author":"Apak","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfca.2016.02.004","article-title":"Antioxidant activity and recovery of green tea catechins in full-fat cheese following gastrointestinal simulated digestion","volume":"48","author":"Rashidinejad","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Food Compost. Anal."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2674","DOI":"10.1007\/s11947-011-0563-1","article-title":"Effects of adding apple polyphenols before and after fermentation on the properties of drinking yoghurt","volume":"5","author":"Zhou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Food Bioprocess Technol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2010.11.087","article-title":"Interaction of milk \u03b1-and \u03b2-caseins with tea polyphenols","volume":"126","author":"Hasni","year":"2011","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6720","DOI":"10.1021\/jf900951w","article-title":"Molecular binding of catechins to biomembranes: Relationship to biological activity","volume":"57","author":"Sirk","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2006.06.025","article-title":"Stability of polyphenols in chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) subjected to in vitro gastric and pancreatic digestion","volume":"102","year":"2007","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2540","DOI":"10.1016\/j.phytochem.2005.09.003","article-title":"Anthocyanins from red wine\u2013their stability under simulated gastrointestinal digestion","volume":"66","author":"McDougall","year":"2005","journal-title":"Phytochemistry"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5896","DOI":"10.1021\/jf050131p","article-title":"Assessing potential bioavailability of raspberry anthocyanins using an in vitro digestion system","volume":"53","author":"McDougall","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105018","DOI":"10.1016\/j.idairyj.2021.105018","article-title":"Activity and bioaccessibility of antioxidants in yoghurt enriched with black mulberry as affected by fermentation and stage of fruit addition","volume":"117","author":"Durmus","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. Dairy J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1002\/mnfr.200600034","article-title":"Chlorogenic acid is poorly absorbed, independently of the food matrix: A Caco-2 cells and rat chronic absorption study","volume":"50","author":"Dupas","year":"2006","journal-title":"Mol. Nutr. Food Res."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1093\/jn\/131.1.66","article-title":"Chlorogenic acid and caffeic acid are absorbed in humans","volume":"131","author":"Olthof","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105453","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodhyd.2019.105453","article-title":"Adding apple pomace as a functional ingredient in stirred-type yogurt and yogurt drinks","volume":"100","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Food Hydrocoll."},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Sivakumaran, S., Huffman, L., and Sivakumaran, S. (2017). The Concise New Zealand Food Composition Tables 2016, The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited and Ministry of Health. [12th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodchem.2018.02.031","article-title":"Effect of animal age on the nutritional and physicochemical qualities of ovine bresaola","volume":"254","author":"Zhang","year":"2018","journal-title":"Food Chem."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22","DOI":"10.1111\/1471-0307.12395","article-title":"Effect of Fuzhuan brick-tea addition on the quality and antioxidant activity of skimmed set-type yoghurt","volume":"71","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Dairy Technol."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/23\/5\/2526\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T22:27:14Z","timestamp":1760135234000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/23\/5\/2526"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,25]]},"references-count":52,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms23052526"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms23052526","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,25]]}}}