{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,24]],"date-time":"2026-10-24T01:09:00Z","timestamp":1792804140225,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,26]],"date-time":"2022-02-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1645833600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Formaldehyde (FA) is an irritating, highly reactive aldehyde that is widely regarded as an asthmagen. In addition to its use in industrial applications and being a product of combustion reaction and endogenous metabolism, FDA-regulated products may contain FA or release FA fumes that present toxicity risks for both patients and healthcare workers. Exposure to airborne FA is associated with nasal neoplastic lesions in both animals and humans. It is classified as a Group 1 carcinogen by International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) based on the increased incidence of cancer in animals and a known human carcinogen in the Report on Carcinogens by National Toxicology Program (NTP). Herein, we systematically evaluated the tissue responses to FA fumes in an in vitro human air-liquid-interface (ALI) airway tissue model. Cultures were exposed at the air interface to 7.5, 15, and 30 ppm of FA fumes 4 h per day for 5 consecutive days. Exposure to 30 ppm of FA induced sustained oxidative stress, along with functional changes in ciliated and goblet cells as well as possible squamous differentiation. Furthermore, secretion of the proinflammatory cytokines, IL-1\u03b2, IL-2, IL-8, GM-CSF, TNF-a and IFN-\u03b3, was induced by repeated exposures to FA fumes. Expression of MMP-1, MMP-3, MMP-7, MMP-10, MMP-12, and MMP-13 was downregulated at the end of the 5-day exposure. Although DNA-damage was not detected by the comet assay, FA exposures downregulated the DNA repair enzymes MGMT and FANCD2, suggesting its possible interference in the DNA repair capacity. Overall, a general concordance was observed between our in vitro responses to FA fume exposures and the reported in vivo toxicity of FA. Our findings provide further evidence supporting the application of the ALI airway system as a potential in vitro alternative for screening and evaluating the respiratory toxicity of inhaled substances.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23052593","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,27]],"date-time":"2022-02-27T20:47:17Z","timestamp":1645994837000},"page":"2593","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["Evaluating the Sub-Acute Toxicity of Formaldehyde Fumes in an In Vitro Human Airway Epithelial Tissue Model"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Baiping","family":"Ren","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Qiangen","family":"Wu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Levan","family":"Muskhelishvili","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicologic Pathology Associates, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3597-8338","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kelly","family":"Davis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Toxicologic Pathology Associates, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yiying","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1467-9555","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Diego","family":"Rua","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Biology, Chemistry, and Materials Science, Office of Science and Engineering Laboratories, Center for Devices and Radiological Health, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, MD 20993, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xuefei","family":"Cao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Genetic and Molecular Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,2,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2020.00003","article-title":"Respiratory barrier as a safeguard and regulator of defense against influenza A virus and Streptococcus pneumoniae","volume":"11","author":"LeMessurier","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. 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