{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,28]],"date-time":"2026-02-28T04:28:01Z","timestamp":1772252881292,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,25]],"date-time":"2022-03-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1648166400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2016-06576"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016-06576"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100000038","name":"Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PGS-D"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PGS-D"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100000038","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100013200","name":"Government of Alberta","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["Alberta Graduate Excellence Scholarship"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Alberta Graduate Excellence Scholarship"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100013200","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Anesthesia is a powerful tool in neuroscientific research, especially in sleep research where it has the experimental advantage of allowing surgical interventions that are ethically problematic in natural sleep. Yet, while it is well documented that different anesthetic agents produce a variety of brain states, and consequently have differential effects on a multitude of neurophysiological factors, these outcomes vary based on dosages, the animal species used, and the pharmacological mechanisms specific to each anesthetic agent. Thus, our aim was to conduct a controlled comparison of spontaneous electrophysiological dynamics at a surgical plane of anesthesia under six common research anesthetics using a ubiquitous animal model, the Sprague-Dawley rat. From this direct comparison, we also evaluated which anesthetic agents may serve as pharmacological proxies for the electrophysiological features and dynamics of unconscious states such as sleep and coma. We found that at a surgical plane, pentobarbital, isoflurane and propofol all produced a continuous pattern of burst-suppression activity, which is a neurophysiological state characteristically observed during coma. In contrast, ketamine-xylazine produced synchronized, slow-oscillatory activity, similar to that observed during slow-wave sleep. Notably, both urethane and chloral hydrate produced the spontaneous, cyclical alternations between forebrain activation (REM-like) and deactivation (non-REM-like) that are similar to those observed during natural sleep. Thus, choice of anesthesia, in conjunction with continuous brain state monitoring, are critical considerations in order to avoid brain-state confounds when conducting neurophysiological experiments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23073608","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,27]],"date-time":"2022-03-27T21:27:51Z","timestamp":1648416471000},"page":"3608","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":17,"title":["A Comparison of Brain-State Dynamics across Common Anesthetic Agents in Male Sprague-Dawley Rats"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7532-2325","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rachel","family":"Ward-Flanagan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E1, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Alto S.","family":"Lo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Elizabeth A.","family":"Clement","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E1, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3849-8110","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Clayton T.","family":"Dickson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Neuroscience and Mental Health Institute, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2E1, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Physiology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2G3, Canada"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-813743-7.00015-3","article-title":"Neurobiological Parallels, Overlaps, and Divergences of Sleep and Anesthesia","volume":"Volume 30","author":"Dickson","year":"2019","journal-title":"Handbook of Behavioral Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1097\/ALN.0000000000000841","article-title":"Clinical Electroencephalography for Anesthesiologists: Part I: Back-ground and Basic Signatures","volume":"123","author":"Purdon","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anesthesiology"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2019.00036","article-title":"General Anesthesia: A Probe to Explore Consciousness","volume":"13","author":"Bonhomme","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. 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