{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T20:38:35Z","timestamp":1791923915293,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":139,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"9","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,27]],"date-time":"2022-04-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1651017600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Primary aldosteronism (PA) is a pathological condition characterized by an excessive aldosterone secretion; once thought to be rare, PA is now recognized as the most common cause of secondary hypertension. Its prevalence increases with the severity of hypertension, reaching up to 29.1% in patients with resistant hypertension (RH). Both PA and RH are \u201chigh-risk phenotypes\u201d, associated with increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality compared to non-PA and non-RH patients. Aldosterone excess, as occurs in PA, can contribute to the development of a RH phenotype through several mechanisms. First, inappropriate aldosterone levels with respect to the hydro-electrolytic status of the individual can cause salt retention and volume expansion by inducing sodium and water reabsorption in the kidney. Moreover, a growing body of evidence has highlighted the detrimental consequences of \u201cnon-classical\u201d effects of aldosterone in several target tissues. Aldosterone-induced vascular remodeling, sympathetic overactivity, insulin resistance, and adipose tissue dysfunction can further contribute to the worsening of arterial hypertension and to the development of drug-resistance. In addition, the pro-oxidative, pro-fibrotic, and pro-inflammatory effects of aldosterone may aggravate end-organ damage, thereby perpetuating a vicious cycle that eventually leads to a more severe hypertensive phenotype. Finally, neither the pathophysiological mechanisms mediating aldosterone-driven blood pressure rise, nor those mediating aldosterone-driven end-organ damage, are specifically blocked by standard first-line anti-hypertensive drugs, which might further account for the drug-resistant phenotype that frequently characterizes PA patients.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23094803","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,27]],"date-time":"2022-04-27T13:40:57Z","timestamp":1651066857000},"page":"4803","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":48,"title":["Primary Aldosteronism and Resistant Hypertension: A Pathophysiological Insight"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7550-7023","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabio","family":"Bioletto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Corso Dogliotti 14, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martina","family":"Bollati","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Corso Dogliotti 14, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chiara","family":"Lopez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Corso Dogliotti 14, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Stefano","family":"Arata","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Corso Dogliotti 14, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Matteo","family":"Procopio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Corso Dogliotti 14, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9202-8013","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Federico","family":"Ponzetto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Corso Dogliotti 14, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ezio","family":"Ghigo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Corso Dogliotti 14, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mauro","family":"Maccario","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Corso Dogliotti 14, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6930-7073","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mirko","family":"Parasiliti-Caprino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Corso Dogliotti 14, 10126 Turin, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2017.07.091","article-title":"Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone (RAAS): The Ubiquitous System for Homeostasis and Pathologies","volume":"94","author":"Patel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Biomed. 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