{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,8]],"date-time":"2026-02-08T07:49:16Z","timestamp":1770536956474,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,9]],"date-time":"2022-06-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1654732800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100001819","name":"International Rett Syndrome Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["3807"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["3807"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100001819","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Intellectual disability (ID) is characterized by deficits in conceptual, social and practical domains. ID can be caused by both genetic defects and environmental factors and is extremely heterogeneous, which complicates the diagnosis as well as the deciphering of the underlying pathways. Multiple scientific breakthroughs during the past decades have enabled the development of novel ID models. The advent of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) enables the study of patient-derived human neurons in 2D or in 3D organoids during development. Gene-editing tools, such as CRISPR\/Cas9, provide isogenic controls and opportunities to design personalized gene therapies. In practice this has contributed significantly to the understanding of ID and opened doors to identify novel therapeutic targets. Despite these advances, a number of areas of improvement remain for which novel technologies might entail a solution in the near future. The purpose of this review is to provide an overview of the existing literature on scientific breakthroughs that have been advancing the way ID can be studied in the human brain. The here described human brain models for ID have the potential to accelerate the identification of underlying pathophysiological mechanisms and the development of therapies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23126476","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,10]],"date-time":"2022-06-10T02:25:33Z","timestamp":1654827933000},"page":"6476","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Human Brain Models of Intellectual Disability: Experimental Advances and Novelties"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6540-3826","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nona","family":"Merckx","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Stem Cell and Developmental Neurobiology, VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"},{"name":"Center for Human Genetics, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"},{"name":"Laboratory for the Genetics of Cognition, Department of Human Genetics, KU Leuven\u2014University of Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9604-5726","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Hilde","family":"Van Esch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Human Genetics, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"},{"name":"Laboratory for the Genetics of Cognition, Department of Human Genetics, KU Leuven\u2014University of Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association (2013). 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