{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T10:44:46Z","timestamp":1790246686140,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":203,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,22]],"date-time":"2022-06-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1655856000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Consejo de Desarrollo Cient\u00edfico, Human\u00edstico y Tecnol\u00f3gico (CONDES), University of Zulia","award":["CC-0437-10-21-09-10"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CC-0437-10-21-09-10"]}]},{"name":"Consejo de Desarrollo Cient\u00edfico, Human\u00edstico y Tecnol\u00f3gico (CONDES), University of Zulia","award":["FZ-0058-2007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FZ-0058-2007"]}]},{"name":"Fundacite-Zulia","award":["CC-0437-10-21-09-10"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["CC-0437-10-21-09-10"]}]},{"name":"Fundacite-Zulia","award":["FZ-0058-2007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["FZ-0058-2007"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) is based on conducting an electrical current through the brain to stimulate it and trigger generalized convulsion activity with therapeutic ends. Due to the efficient use of ECT during the last years, interest in the molecular bases involved in its mechanism of action has increased. Therefore, different hypotheses have emerged. In this context, the goal of this review is to describe the neurobiological, endocrine, and immune mechanisms involved in ECT and to detail its clinical efficacy in different psychiatric pathologies. This is a narrative review in which an extensive literature search was performed on the Scopus, Embase, PubMed, ISI Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases from inception to February 2022. The terms \u201celectroconvulsive therapy\u201d, \u201cneurobiological effects of electroconvulsive therapy\u201d, \u201cmolecular mechanisms in electroconvulsive therapy\u201d, and \u201cpsychiatric disorders\u201d were among the keywords used in the search. The mechanisms of action of ECT include neurobiological function modifications and endocrine and immune changes that take place after ECT. Among these, the decrease in neural network hyperconnectivity, neuroinflammation reduction, neurogenesis promotion, modulation of different monoaminergic systems, and hypothalamus\u2013hypophysis\u2013adrenal and hypothalamus\u2013hypophysis\u2013thyroid axes normalization have been described. The majority of these elements are physiopathological components and therapeutic targets in different mental illnesses. Likewise, the use of ECT has recently expanded, with evidence of its use for other pathologies, such as Parkinson\u2019s disease psychosis, malignant neuroleptic syndrome, post-traumatic stress disorder, and obsessive\u2013compulsive disorder. In conclusion, there is sufficient evidence to support the efficacy of ECT in the treatment of different psychiatric disorders, potentially through immune, endocrine, and neurobiological systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23136918","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,22]],"date-time":"2022-06-22T04:12:01Z","timestamp":1655871121000},"page":"6918","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":40,"title":["Electroconvulsive Therapy in Psychiatric Disorders: A Narrative Review Exploring Neuroendocrine\u2013Immune Therapeutic Mechanisms and Clinical Implications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2764-8846","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Milagros","family":"Rojas","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Research Center, School of Medicine, University of Zulia, Maracaibo 4004, Venezuela"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0123-3629","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Daniela","family":"Ariza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Research Center, School of Medicine, University of Zulia, Maracaibo 4004, Venezuela"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7180-4765","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"\u00c1ngel","family":"Ortega","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Research Center, School of Medicine, University of Zulia, Maracaibo 4004, Venezuela"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Manuel E.","family":"Ria\u00f1o-Garz\u00f3n","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Jur\u00eddicas y Sociales, Universidad Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar, C\u00facuta 540006, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mervin","family":"Ch\u00e1vez-Castillo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Research Center, School of Medicine, University of Zulia, Maracaibo 4004, Venezuela"},{"name":"Psychiatric Hospital of Maracaibo, Maracaibo 4004, Venezuela"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0914-5858","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Luis","family":"P\u00e9rez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Research Center, School of Medicine, University of Zulia, Maracaibo 4004, Venezuela"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3120-4757","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lorena","family":"Cudris-Torres","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Programa de Psicolog\u00eda, Fundaci\u00f3n Universitaria del \u00c1rea Andina, Valledupar 200001, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mar\u00eda Judith","family":"Bautista","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias Jur\u00eddicas y Sociales, Universidad Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar, C\u00facuta 540006, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Oscar","family":"Medina-Ortiz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Santander, C\u00facuta 540003, Colombia"},{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar, Barranquilla 080002, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joselyn","family":"Rojas-Quintero","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Brigham and Women\u2019s Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 77054, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1880-8887","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Valmore","family":"Berm\u00fadez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar, Barranquilla 080002, Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1034","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.141.9.1034","article-title":"Meduna and the Origins of Convulsive Therapy","volume":"141","author":"Fink","year":"1984","journal-title":"Am. 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