{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,23]],"date-time":"2026-06-23T13:52:58Z","timestamp":1782222778173,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":192,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,30]],"date-time":"2022-06-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1656547200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Pulmonary manifestation (PM) of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) in children is a rare condition. The exact pathogenesis is still unclear, but several explanatory concepts were postulated and several case reports in children were published. We performed a systematic Medline search between April 1976 and April 2022. Different pathophysiological concepts were identified, including the shared embryological origin, \u201cmiss-homing\u201d of intestinal based neutrophils and T lymphocytes, inflammatory triggering via certain molecules (tripeptide proline-glycine-proline, interleukin 25), genetic factors and alterations in the microbiome. Most pediatric IBD patients with PM are asymptomatic, but can show alterations in pulmonary function tests and breathing tests. In children, the pulmonary parenchyma is more affected than the airways, leading histologically mainly to organizing pneumonia. Medication-associated lung injury has to be considered in pulmonary symptomatic pediatric IBD patients treated with certain agents (i.e., mesalamine, sulfasalazine or infliximab). Furthermore, the risk of pulmonary embolism is generally increased in pediatric IBD patients. The initial treatment of PM is based on corticosteroids, either inhaled for the larger airways or systemic for smaller airways and parenchymal disease. In summary, this review article summarizes the current knowledge about PM in pediatric IBD patients, focusing on pathophysiological and clinical aspects.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23137287","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,1]],"date-time":"2022-07-01T00:21:50Z","timestamp":1656634910000},"page":"7287","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Pathophysiological Concepts and Management of Pulmonary Manifestation of Pediatric Inflammatory Bowel Disease"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Florian","family":"Schmid","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Catholic Children\u2019s Hospital Wilhelmstift, 22149 Hamburg, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Cho-Ming","family":"Chao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, University Medical Center Rostock, 18057 Rostock, Germany"},{"name":"Cardio-Pulmonary Institute (CPI), University of Giessen and Marburg Lung Center (UGMLC), German Center of Lung Research (DZL), Justus-Liebig-University, 35398 Giessen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4219-5283","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jan","family":"D\u00e4britz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatrics, University Medical Center Greifswald, 17475 Greifswald, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,6,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"423","DOI":"10.1002\/ibd.21349","article-title":"Epidemiology of Pediatric Inflammatory Bowel Disease: A Systematic Review of International Trends","volume":"17","author":"Benchimol","year":"2011","journal-title":"Inflamm. 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