{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,23]],"date-time":"2026-08-23T17:39:31Z","timestamp":1787506771254,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":179,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"14","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,18]],"date-time":"2022-07-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1658102400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Science and Technology Taiwan","award":["MOST 110-2221E155013"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["MOST 110-2221E155013"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["IJMS"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system characterized by relapses and autoimmunity caused by antibodies against the astrocyte water channel protein aquaporin-4. Over the past decade, there have been significant advances in the biologic knowledge of NMOSD, which resulted in the IDENTIFICATION of variable disease phenotypes, biomarkers, and complex inflammatory cascades involved in disease pathogenesis. Ongoing clinical trials are looking at new treatments targeting NMOSD relapses. This review aims to provide an update on recent studies regarding issues related to NMOSD, including the pathophysiology of the disease, the potential use of serum and cerebrospinal fluid cytokines as disease biomarkers, the clinical utilization of ocular coherence tomography, and the comparison of different animal models of NMOSD.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23147908","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,18]],"date-time":"2022-07-18T11:32:23Z","timestamp":1658143943000},"page":"7908","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":20,"title":["Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder: From Basic Research to Clinical Perspectives"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"23","author":[{"given":"Tzu-Lun","family":"Huang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Far Eastern Memorial Hospital, Banqiao Dist., New Taipei City 220, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Yuan Ze University, Chung-Li, Taoyuan 320, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3157-3613","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jia-Kang","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Far Eastern Memorial Hospital, Banqiao Dist., New Taipei City 220, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Yuan Ze University, Chung-Li, Taoyuan 320, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei City 112, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei City 106, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Healthcare Administration and Department of Nursing, Oriental Institute of Technology, New Taipei City 220, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pei-Yao","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Far Eastern Memorial Hospital, Banqiao Dist., New Taipei City 220, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Yuan Ze University, Chung-Li, Taoyuan 320, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yung-Ray","family":"Hsu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Ophthalmology, Far Eastern Memorial Hospital, Banqiao Dist., New Taipei City 220, Taiwan"},{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Yuan Ze University, Chung-Li, Taoyuan 320, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8373-2271","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Cheng-Hung","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, Yuan Ze University, Chung-Li, Taoyuan 320, Taiwan"},{"name":"Biomedical Engineering Research Center, Yuan Ze University, Taoyuan 320, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2398-6373","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kung-Hung","family":"Lin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Taiwan Adventist Hospital, Taipei City 105, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8760-5739","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rong-Kung","family":"Tsai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Eye Research, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation, Tzu Chi University, 707 Sec. 3 Chung-Yung Road, Hualien 970, Taiwan"},{"name":"Institute of Medical Sciences, Tzu Chi University, Hualien 970, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2020.102425","article-title":"Epidemiology and Comorbidities of Adult Multiple Sclerosis and Neuromyelitis Optica in Taiwan, 2001\u20132015","volume":"45","author":"Fang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.00501","article-title":"Epidemiology of Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder and Its Prevalence and Incidence Worldwide","volume":"11","author":"Hor","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1354","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-011-6355-8","article-title":"The Case of the Marquis De Causan (1804): An Early Account of Visual Loss Associated with Spinal Cord Inflammation","volume":"259","author":"Jarius","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2106","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(04)17551-X","article-title":"A Serum Autoantibody Marker of Neuromyelitis Optica: Distinction from Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"364","author":"Lennon","year":"2004","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1194","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awl371","article-title":"Pattern-Specific Loss of Aquaporin-4 Immunoreactivity Distinguishes Neuromyelitis Optica from Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"130","author":"Roemer","year":"2007","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"473","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20050304","article-title":"Igg Marker of Optic-Spinal Multiple Sclerosis Binds to the Aquaporin-4 Water Channel","volume":"202","author":"Lennon","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"C1332","DOI":"10.1152\/ajpcell.1998.274.5.C1332","article-title":"Aquaporins in Complex Tissues: Distribution of Aquaporins 1\u20135 in Human and Rat Eye","volume":"274","author":"Hamann","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. J. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2004.08.053","article-title":"Aquaporin-4 in the Central Nervous System: Cellular and Subcellular Distribution and Coexpression with Kir4.1","volume":"129","author":"Nagelhus","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2506","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.18-07-02506.1998","article-title":"Aquaporin-4 Water Channel Protein in the Rat Retina and Optic Nerve: Polarized Expression in Muller Cells and Fibrous Astrocytes","volume":"18","author":"Nagelhus","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2330","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-017-8445-8","article-title":"What\u2019s New in Neuromyelitis Optica? A Short Review for the Clinical Neurologist","volume":"264","author":"Whittam","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.17-01-00171.1997","article-title":"Specialized Membrane Domains for Water Transport in Glial Cells: High-Resolution Immunogold Cytochemistry of Aquaporin-4 in Rat Brain","volume":"17","author":"Nielsen","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-013-7169-7","article-title":"Update on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Neuromyelitis Optica: Recommendations of the Neuromyelitis Optica Study Group (Nemos)","volume":"261","author":"Trebst","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000001729","article-title":"International Consensus Diagnostic Criteria for Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders","volume":"85","author":"Wingerchuk","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458516663853","article-title":"The Impact of 2015 Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders Criteria on Diagnostic Rates","volume":"23","author":"Hamid","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103030","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2021.103030","article-title":"The Occurrence of Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibodies in Aquaporin-4-Antibody Seronegative Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis","volume":"53","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1235","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awm062","article-title":"Anti-Aquaporin-4 Antibody Is Involved in the Pathogenesis of Nmo: A Study on Antibody Titre","volume":"130","author":"Takahashi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"635419","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.635419","article-title":"Anti-Aquaporin 4 Igg Is Not Associated with Any Clinical Disease Characteristics in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder","volume":"12","author":"Schmetzer","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"662353","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.662353","article-title":"Editorial: Epidemiology of Atypical Demyelinating Diseases","volume":"12","author":"Rotstein","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1310","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awz054","article-title":"Outcome Prediction Models in Aqp4-Igg Positive Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders","volume":"142","author":"Palace","year":"2019","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1273","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e31826aac4e","article-title":"Myelin-Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibodies in Adults with a Neuromyelitis Optica Phenotype","volume":"79","author":"Kitley","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e318228c0b1","article-title":"Antibodies to Mog Are Transient in Childhood Acute Disseminated Encephalomyelitis","volume":"77","author":"Probstel","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1257","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2015-312676","article-title":"Myelin Injury without Astrocytopathy in Neuroinflammatory Disorders with Mog Antibodies","volume":"87","author":"Kaneko","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e708","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000708","article-title":"Serum Biomarkers in Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody-Associated Disease","volume":"7","author":"Kim","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102005","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2020.102005","article-title":"Clinical and Immunological Differences between Mog Associated Disease and Anti Aqp4 Antibody-Positive Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders: Blood-Brain Barrier Breakdown and Peripheral Plasmablasts","volume":"41","author":"Tanaka","year":"2020","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1097\/WCO.0000000000000828","article-title":"Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders and Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody-Associated Disease: Current Topics","volume":"33","author":"Fujihara","year":"2020","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-020-10352-1","article-title":"The Changing Landscape of Optic Neuritis: A Narrative Review","volume":"269","author":"Bennett","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1097\/WNO.0b013e318254c62d","article-title":"Magnetic Resonance Imaging of Optic Neuritis in Patients with Neuromyelitis Optica Versus Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"32","author":"Khanna","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neuroophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1097\/WNO.0b013e318283c3ed","article-title":"Distinguishing Optic Neuritis in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disease from Multiple Sclerosis: A Novel Magnetic Resonance Imaging Scoring System","volume":"33","author":"Storoni","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neuroophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2018.07.020","article-title":"Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody-Positive Optic Neuritis: Clinical Characteristics, Radiologic Clues, and Outcome","volume":"195","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2013.5857","article-title":"Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders with Aquaporin-4 and Myelin-Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibodies: A Comparative Study","volume":"71","author":"Kitley","year":"2014","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000000101","article-title":"Distinction between Mog Antibody-Positive and Aqp4 Antibody-Positive Nmo Spectrum Disorders","volume":"82","author":"Sato","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-016-0718-0","article-title":"Mog-Igg in Nmo and Related Disorders: A Multicenter Study of 50 Patients. Part 2: Epidemiology, Clinical Presentation, Radiological and Laboratory Features, Treatment Responses, and Long-Term Outcome","volume":"13","author":"Jarius","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1197","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3182a6cb5c","article-title":"Updated Estimate of Aqp4-Igg Serostatus and Disability Outcome in Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"81","author":"Jiao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"317","DOI":"10.5603\/PJNNS.a2019.0049","article-title":"Novel Emerging Treatments for Nmosd","volume":"53","author":"Selmaj","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurol. Neurochir. Pol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"402","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(20)30078-8","article-title":"Safety and Efficacy of Satralizumab Monotherapy in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder: A Randomised, Double-Blind, Multicentre, Placebo-Controlled Phase 3 Trial","volume":"19","author":"Traboulsee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1352","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(19)31817-3","article-title":"Inebilizumab for the Treatment of Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder (N-Momentum): A Double-Blind, Randomised Placebo-Controlled Phase 2\/3 Trial","volume":"394","author":"Cree","year":"2019","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/s40120-021-00295-8","article-title":"Network Meta-Analysis of Food and Drug Administration-Approved Treatment Options for Adults with Aquaporin-4 Immunoglobulin G-Positive Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder","volume":"11","author":"Wingerchuk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1016\/S1474-4422(13)70076-0","article-title":"Eculizumab in Aqp4-Igg-Positive Relapsing Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders: An Open-Label Pilot Study","volume":"12","author":"Pittock","year":"2013","journal-title":"Lancet Neurol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e441","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000441","article-title":"Open-Label, Add-on Trial of Cetirizine for Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"5","author":"Fabian","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458512440060","article-title":"Protective Effect of an Elastase Inhibitor in a Neuromyelitis Optica-Like Disease Driven by a Peptide of Myelin Oligodendroglial Glycoprotein","volume":"18","author":"Herges","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2003.08.006","article-title":"New Roles for Astrocytes (Stars at Last)","volume":"26","author":"Ransom","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/1742-2094-11-16","article-title":"Experimental Mouse Model of Optic Neuritis with Inflammatory Demyelination Produced by Passive Transfer of Neuromyelitis Optica-Immunoglobulin G","volume":"11","author":"Asavapanumas","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458514567216","article-title":"Neuromyelitis Optica and Multiple Sclerosis: Seeing Differences through Optical Coherence Tomography","volume":"21","author":"Bennett","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1450","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awf151","article-title":"A Role for Humoral Mechanisms in the Pathogenesis of Devic\u2019s Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"125","author":"Lucchinetti","year":"2002","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1111\/bpa.12099","article-title":"The Pathology of an Autoimmune Astrocytopathy: Lessons Learned from Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"24","author":"Lucchinetti","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Pathol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1245","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1109980108","article-title":"Molecular Outcomes of Neuromyelitis Optica (Nmo)-Igg Binding to Aquaporin-4 in Astrocytes","volume":"109","author":"Hinson","year":"2012","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"892","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroscience.2009.08.034","article-title":"Live-Cell Imaging of Aquaporin-4 Diffusion and Interactions in Orthogonal Arrays of Particles","volume":"168","author":"Crane","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abe, Y., and Yasui, M. (2022). Aquaporin-4 in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders: A Target of Autoimmunity in the Central Nervous System. Biomolecules, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/biom12040591"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0000314832.24682.c6","article-title":"Cns Aquaporin-4 Autoimmunity in Children","volume":"71","author":"Mckeon","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1118","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaneurol.2013.3124","article-title":"Aquaporin 4 Expression and Tissue Susceptibility to Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"70","author":"Matiello","year":"2013","journal-title":"JAMA Neurol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3369","DOI":"10.1091\/mbc.e08-03-0322","article-title":"Aquaporin-4 Dynamics in Orthogonal Arrays in Live Cells Visualized by Quantum Dot Single Particle Tracking","volume":"19","author":"Crane","year":"2008","journal-title":"Mol. Biol. Cell"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11156","DOI":"10.1021\/bi990941s","article-title":"Heterotetrameric Composition of Aquaporin-4 Water Channels","volume":"38","author":"Neely","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biochemistry"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13829","DOI":"10.1074\/jbc.M112.344325","article-title":"Complement-Dependent Cytotoxicity in Neuromyelitis Optica Requires Aquaporin-4 Protein Assembly in Orthogonal Arrays","volume":"287","author":"Phuan","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1034","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000001034","article-title":"Molecular Level Characterization of Circulating Aquaporin-4 Antibodies in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder","volume":"8","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/cen3.12345","article-title":"Muller Cells and Retinal Axons Can Be Primary Targets in Experimental Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder","volume":"8","author":"Zeka","year":"2017","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S33","DOI":"10.1007\/s10875-012-9796-7","article-title":"Neuromyelitis Optica: Potential Roles for Intravenous Immunoglobulin","volume":"33","author":"Wingerchuk","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Clin. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2019.01.016","article-title":"Evidence of M\u00fcller Glial Dysfunction in Patients with Aquaporin-4 Immunoglobulin G-Positive Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder","volume":"126","author":"You","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"699","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-013-1172-z","article-title":"Involvement of Antibody-Dependent Cell-Mediated Cytotoxicity in Inflammatory Demyelination in a Mouse Model of Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"126","author":"Ratelade","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1186\/s40478-019-0766-7","article-title":"Complement-Independent Bystander Injury in Aqp4-Igg Seropositive Neuromyelitis Optica Produced by Antibody-Dependent Cellular Cytotoxicity","volume":"7","author":"Duan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol. Commun."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-013-1204-8","article-title":"Unique Neuromyelitis Optica Pathology Produced in Naive Rats by Intracerebral Administration of Nmo-Igg","volume":"127","author":"Asavapanumas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2013.00076","article-title":"Natural Killer Cell Mediated Antibody-Dependent Cellular Cytotoxicity in Tumor Immunotherapy with Therapeutic Antibodies","volume":"4","author":"Seidel","year":"2013","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"714","DOI":"10.1038\/nrc1913","article-title":"Comparing Antibody and Small-Molecule Therapies for Cancer","volume":"6","author":"Imai","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Cancer"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1023","DOI":"10.1096\/fj.09-141978","article-title":"Cellular Mechanisms of Il-17-Induced Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption","volume":"24","author":"Huppert","year":"2010","journal-title":"FASEB J."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20072404","article-title":"The Th17\u2013Elr+ Cxc Chemokine Pathway Is Essential for the Development of Central Nervous System Autoimmune Disease","volume":"205","author":"Carlson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.23651","article-title":"Aquaporin 4-Specific T Cells in Neuromyelitis Optica Exhibit a Th17 Bias and Recognize Clostridium Abc Transporter","volume":"72","author":"Spencer","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1443","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458510379247","article-title":"Cytokine and Chemokine Profiles in Neuromyelitis Optica: Significance of Interleukin-6","volume":"16","author":"Uzawa","year":"2010","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. J."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5314541","DOI":"10.1155\/2016\/5314541","article-title":"Th17 Cells Pathways in Multiple Sclerosis and Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders: Pathophysiological and Therapeutic Implications","volume":"2016","author":"Passos","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mediat. Inflamm."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chen, D., Gallagher, S., Monson, N.L., Herbst, R., and Wang, Y. (2016). Inebilizumab, a B Cell-Depleting Anti-Cd19 Antibody for the Treatment of Autoimmune Neurological Diseases: Insights from Preclinical Studies. J. Clin. Med., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/jcm5120107"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"655","DOI":"10.4161\/mabs.25439","article-title":"Autoantibody Depletion Ameliorates Disease in Murine Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis","volume":"5","author":"Challa","year":"2013","journal-title":"mAbs"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2221","DOI":"10.1212\/01.WNL.0000289761.64862.ce","article-title":"Pathogenic Potential of Igg Binding to Water Channel Extracellular Domain in Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"69","author":"Hinson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1186\/s40478-017-0462-4","article-title":"Complement Regulator Cd59 Prevents Peripheral Organ Injury in Rats Made Seropositive for Neuromyelitis Optica Immunoglobulin G","volume":"5","author":"Yao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol. Commun."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2000","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI122942","article-title":"Membrane Assembly of Aquaporin-4 Autoantibodies Regulates Classical Complement Activation in Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"129","author":"Soltys","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"829","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-013-1128-3","article-title":"C1q-Targeted Monoclonal Antibody Prevents Complement-Dependent Cytotoxicity and Neuropathology in In Vitro and Mouse Models of Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"125","author":"Phuan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2016.07.016","article-title":"Eculizumab Epitope on Complement C5: Progress towards a Better Understanding of the Mechanism of Action","volume":"77","author":"Brachet","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa061648","article-title":"The Complement Inhibitor Eculizumab in Paroxysmal Nocturnal Hemoglobinuria","volume":"355","author":"Hillmen","year":"2006","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2015.00257","article-title":"Complement System Part II: Role in Immunity","volume":"6","author":"Merle","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"577699","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2021.577699","article-title":"C3 and C4 Complement Levels in Aqp4-Igg-Positive Nmosd and in Mogad","volume":"360","author":"Pache","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1431","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awaa102","article-title":"Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody-Associated Disease: An Immunopathological Study","volume":"143","author":"Takai","year":"2020","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2018-317969","article-title":"Csf Cytokine Profile in Mog-Igg+ Neurological Disease Is Similar to Aqp4-Igg+ Nmosd but Distinct from Ms: A Cross-Sectional Study and Potential Therapeutic Implications","volume":"89","author":"Kaneko","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1186\/2051-5960-2-35","article-title":"Neuromyelitis Optica Mog-Igg Causes Reversible Lesions in Mouse Brain","volume":"2","author":"Saadoun","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol. Commun."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-017-0984-5","article-title":"Human Antibodies against the Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Can Cause Complement-Dependent Demyelination","volume":"14","author":"Peschl","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"976","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.26226","article-title":"Complement Activation Is a Prominent Feature of Mogad","volume":"90","author":"Keller","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-021-02249-1","article-title":"Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders: From Pathophysiology to Therapeutic Strategies","volume":"18","author":"Correale","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"493","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2014.141","article-title":"Treatment of Neuromyelitis Optica: State-of-the-Art and Emerging Therapies","volume":"10","author":"Papadopoulos","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1928","DOI":"10.1038\/s41409-020-0810-z","article-title":"Effect of Autologous Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation on Multiple Sclerosis and Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder: A Prisma-Compliant Meta-Analysis","volume":"55","author":"Zhang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Bone Marrow Transplant."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8463","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1820039116","article-title":"Immune Tolerance in Multiple Sclerosis and Neuromyelitis Optica with Peptide-Loaded Tolerogenic Dendritic Cells in a Phase 1b Trial","volume":"116","author":"Zubizarreta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"611","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.21370","article-title":"Phase 2 Trial of a DNA Vaccine Encoding Myelin Basic Protein for Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"63","author":"Garren","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e277","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000276","article-title":"Restoring Immune Tolerance in Neuromyelitis Optica: Part II","volume":"3","author":"Steinman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e276","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000276","article-title":"Restoring Immune Tolerance in Neuromyelitis Optica: Part I","volume":"3","author":"Steinman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1080\/25785826.2018.1531190","article-title":"Blood-Brain Barrier Dysfunction in Immuno-Mediated Neurological Diseases","volume":"41","author":"Shimizu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Immunol. Med."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1080\/14712598.2021.1884223","article-title":"Targeting the Complement System in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder","volume":"21","author":"Asavapanumas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert Opin. Biol. Ther."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"349","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awp309","article-title":"Intra-Cerebral Injection of Neuromyelitis Optica Immunoglobulin G and Human Complement Produces Neuromyelitis Optica Lesions in Mice","volume":"133","author":"Saadoun","year":"2010","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737673","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.737673","article-title":"A Comprehensive Review on the Role of Genetic Factors in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder","volume":"12","author":"Azimi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3181ea9f15","article-title":"Familial Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"75","author":"Matiello","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2294","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.14771","article-title":"Whole-Exome Sequencing Reveals the Major Genetic Factors Contributing to Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder in Chinese Patients with Aquaporin 4-Igg Seropositivity","volume":"28","author":"Zhong","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"571","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458508102085","article-title":"Is Neuromyelitis Optica Associated with Human Leukocyte Antigen?","volume":"15","author":"Fajardy","year":"2009","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2082","DOI":"10.1002\/acn3.51147","article-title":"Genetic Factors for Susceptibility to and Manifestations of Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"7","author":"Matsushita","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ann. Clin. Transl. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1929","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-04332-3","article-title":"A Whole-Genome Sequence Study Identifies Genetic Risk Factors for Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"9","author":"Estrada","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-019-1551-z","article-title":"Next-Generation Sequencing Identifies Contribution of Both Class I and Ii Hla Genes on Susceptibility of Multiple Sclerosis in Japanese","volume":"16","author":"Ogawa","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-04074-1","article-title":"High Cell Surface Expression and Peptide Binding Affinity of Hla-Dqa1*05:03, a Susceptible Allele of Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders (Nmosd)","volume":"12","author":"Beppu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"607","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-79833-7","article-title":"Hla Genotype-Clinical Phenotype Correlations in Multiple Sclerosis and Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders Based on Japan Ms\/Nmosd Biobank Data","volume":"11","author":"Watanabe","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp-2012-302925","article-title":"Distinct Genetic and Infectious Profiles in Japanese Neuromyelitis Optica Patients According to Anti-Aquaporin 4 Antibody Status","volume":"84","author":"Yoshimura","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"690537","DOI":"10.3389\/fgene.2021.690537","article-title":"Multi-Level Analyses of Genome-Wide Association Study to Reveal Significant Risk Genes and Pathways in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder","volume":"12","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Genet."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1111\/bpa.12097","article-title":"Cytokines and Chemokines in Neuromyelitis Optica: Pathogenetic and Therapeutic Implications","volume":"24","author":"Uzawa","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Pathol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1080\/14737175.2020.1764352","article-title":"Moving Beyond Anti-Aquaporin-4 Antibodies: Emerging Biomarkers in the Spectrum of Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"20","author":"Rocca","year":"2020","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Neurother."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1133","DOI":"10.1038\/ni1261","article-title":"A Distinct Lineage of Cd4 T Cells Regulates Tissue Inflammation by Producing Interleukin 17","volume":"6","author":"Park","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105793","DOI":"10.1016\/j.intimp.2019.105793","article-title":"Proportions of Th17 Cells and Th17-Related Cytokines in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders Patients: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"75","author":"Hou","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. Immunopharmacol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maciak, K., Pietrasik, S., Dziedzic, A., Redlicka, J., Saluk-Bijak, J., Bijak, M., W\u0142odarczyk, T., and Miller, E. (2021). Th17-Related Cytokines as Potential Discriminatory Markers between Neuromyelitis Optica (Devic\u2019s Disease) and Multiple Sclerosis\u2014A Review. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22168946"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e841","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000841","article-title":"Interleukin-6 in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder Pathophysiology","volume":"7","author":"Fujihara","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1076","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000001076","article-title":"New Bbb Model Reveals That Il-6 Blockade Suppressed the Bbb Disorder, Preventing Onset of Nmosd","volume":"8","author":"Takeshita","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20041257","article-title":"Il-23 Drives a Pathogenic T Cell Population That Induces Autoimmune Inflammation","volume":"201","author":"Langrish","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.immunol.021908.132710","article-title":"Il-17 and Th17 Cells","volume":"27","author":"Korn","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"568","DOI":"10.1038\/ni.2031","article-title":"The Encephalitogenicity of Th17 Cells Is Dependent on Il-1- and Il-23-Induced Production of the Cytokine Gm-Csf","volume":"12","author":"Ciric","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nat. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroim.2019.01.015","article-title":"The Expansion of Circulating Il-6 and Il-17-Secreting Follicular Helper T Cells Is Associated with Neurological Disabilities in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders","volume":"330","author":"Monteiro","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1072","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458516672015","article-title":"Increased Cerebrospinal Fluid Metalloproteinase-2 and Interleukin-6 Are Associated with Albumin Quotient in Neuromyelitis Optica: Their Possible Role on Blood-Brain Barrier Disruption","volume":"23","author":"Uchida","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12099","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0705268104","article-title":"Il-6-Dependent and -Independent Pathways in the Development of Interleukin 17-Producing T Helper Cells","volume":"104","author":"Kimura","year":"2007","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e311","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000311","article-title":"Effects of Neuromyelitis Optica-Igg at the Blood-Brain Barrier in Vitro","volume":"4","author":"Takeshita","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1111\/cen3.12024","article-title":"Role of Interleukin-6 in the Pathogenesis of Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"4","author":"Uzawa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Neuroimmunol."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2731","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI25141","article-title":"Il-6 Induces Regionally Selective Spinal Cord Injury in Patients with the Neuroinflammatory Disorder Transverse Myelitis","volume":"115","author":"Kaplin","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_120","first-page":"3961","article-title":"Microglia Complement Astrocytes in Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"130","author":"Moinfar","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Clin. Investig."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3059","DOI":"10.7150\/ijms.61153","article-title":"The Role and Mechanisms of Microglia in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders","volume":"18","author":"Li","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_122","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"208","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3181e2414b","article-title":"Astrocytic Damage Is Far More Severe Than Demyelination in Nmo: A Clinical Csf Biomarker Study","volume":"75","author":"Takano","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_123","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"720907","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.720907","article-title":"Therapeutic Response and Possible Biomarkers in Acute Attacks of Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders: A Prospective Observational Study","volume":"12","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_124","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1299","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000008160","article-title":"Serum Gfap and Neurofilament Light as Biomarkers of Disease Activity and Disability in Nmosd","volume":"93","author":"Watanabe","year":"2019","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"895","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.26067","article-title":"Serum Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein: A Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder Biomarker","volume":"89","author":"Aktas","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-021-02138-7","article-title":"Serum Gfap and Nfl as Disease Severity and Prognostic Biomarkers in Patients with Aquaporin-4 Antibody-Positive Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder","volume":"18","author":"Schindler","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103527","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2022.103527","article-title":"Serum Molecular Biomarkers in Neuromyelitis Optica and Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"59","author":"Fu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_128","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"843","DOI":"10.1038\/icb.2017.56","article-title":"Ifn-Gamma Promotes Transendothelial Migration of Cd4+ T Cells across the Blood-Brain Barrier","volume":"95","author":"Sonar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Immunol. Cell Biol."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01675-19","DOI":"10.1128\/mBio.01675-19","article-title":"Gamma Interferon Alters Junctional Integrity Via Rho Kinase, Resulting in Blood-Brain Barrier Leakage in Experimental Viral Encephalitis","volume":"10","author":"Bonney","year":"2019","journal-title":"mBio"},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2018.00044","article-title":"Elevated Plasma Chemokines for Eosinophils in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders during Remission","volume":"9","author":"Tong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e035397","DOI":"10.1136\/bmjopen-2019-035397","article-title":"Cohort Profile: A Collaborative Multicentre Study of Retinal Optical Coherence Tomography in 539 Patients with Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders (Croctino)","volume":"10","author":"Specovius","year":"2020","journal-title":"BMJ Open"},{"key":"ref_132","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1068","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000001068","article-title":"Retinal Optical Coherence Tomography in Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"8","author":"Oertel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1126","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000001126","article-title":"Leveraging Visual Outcome Measures to Advance Therapy Development in Neuroimmunologic Disorders","volume":"9","author":"Graves","year":"2022","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schneider, E., Zimmermann, H., Oberwahrenbrock, T., Kaufhold, F., Kadas, E.M., Petzold, A., Bilger, F., Borisow, N., Jarius, S., and Wildemann, B. (2013). Optical Coherence Tomography Reveals Distinct Patterns of Retinal Damage in Neuromyelitis Optica and Multiple Sclerosis. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0066151"},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"603","DOI":"10.1212\/01.wnl.0000254502.87233.9a","article-title":"A Secondary Progressive Clinical Course Is Uncommon in Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"68","author":"Wingerchuk","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1406","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0b013e31828c2f7a","article-title":"In Vivo Identification of Morphologic Retinal Abnormalities in Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"80","author":"Sotirchos","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e334","DOI":"10.1212\/NXI.0000000000000334","article-title":"Microstructural Visual System Changes in Aqp4-Antibody\u2013Seropositive Nmosd","volume":"4","author":"Oertel","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neurol. Neuroimmunol. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1058","DOI":"10.1177\/1352458512452924","article-title":"The Role of Mitochondria in Axonal Degeneration and Tissue Repair in Ms","volume":"18","author":"Witte","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1813","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/124.9.1813","article-title":"Size-Selective Neuronal Changes in the Anterior Optic Pathways Suggest a Differential Susceptibility to Injury in Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"124","author":"Evangelou","year":"2001","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Al-Nosairy, K.O., Horbr\u00fcgger, M., Schippling, S., Wagner, M., Haghikia, A., Pawlitzki, M., and Hoffmann, M.B. (2021). Structure\u2013Function Relationship of Retinal Ganglion Cells in Multiple Sclerosis. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22073419"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"710","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2017.00710","article-title":"Patterns of Retinal Ganglion Cell Damage in Neurodegenerative Disorders: Parvocellular vs Magnocellular Degeneration in Optical Coherence Tomography Studies","volume":"8","author":"Carelli","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"669567","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2021.669567","article-title":"Optical Coherence Tomography Reveals Longitudinal Changes in Retinal Damage under Different Treatments for Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder","volume":"12","author":"Zeng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1343","DOI":"10.1007\/s00415-016-8138-8","article-title":"Subclinical Primary Retinal Pathology in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder","volume":"263","author":"Jeong","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2280","DOI":"10.1111\/ene.14766","article-title":"Foveal Changes in Aquaporin-4 Antibody Seropositive Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorder Are Independent of Optic Neuritis and Not Overtly Progressive","volume":"28","author":"Oertel","year":"2021","journal-title":"Eur. J. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1186\/s12974-016-0746-9","article-title":"Complement-Independent Retinal Pathology Produced by Intravitreal Injection of Neuromyelitis Optica Immunoglobulin G","volume":"13","author":"Felix","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Neuroinflamm."},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"302","DOI":"10.1097\/ICB.0000000000000197","article-title":"En Face Optical Coherence Tomography of Macular Microcysts Due to Optic Neuropathy from Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"9","author":"Chen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Retin Cases Brief Rep."},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2133","DOI":"10.1097\/IAE.0b013e31828e68d0","article-title":"Retinal Inner Nuclear Layer Microcystic Changes in Optic Nerve Atrophy: A Novel Spectral-Domain Oct Finding","volume":"33","author":"Wolff","year":"2013","journal-title":"Retina"},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2009.09.029","article-title":"Detection of Early Neuron Degeneration and Accompanying Glial Responses in the Visual Pathway in a Rat Model of Acute Intraocular Hypertension","volume":"1303","author":"Zhang","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"397","DOI":"10.1016\/j.survophthal.2007.04.007","article-title":"Optical Coherence Tomography Use in Evaluation of the Vitreoretinal Interface: A Review","volume":"52","author":"Mirza","year":"2007","journal-title":"Surv. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1786","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/aws098","article-title":"Microcystic Macular Oedema in Multiple Sclerosis Is Associated with Disease Severity","volume":"135","author":"Gelfand","year":"2012","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_151","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0909494","article-title":"A Placebo-Controlled Trial of Oral Fingolimod in Relapsing Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"362","author":"Kappos","year":"2010","journal-title":"N. Engl. J. Med."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e239","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awt014","article-title":"Microcystic Macular Degeneration from Optic Neuropathy: Not Inflammatory, Not Trans-Synaptic Degeneration","volume":"136","author":"Barboni","year":"2013","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2017-311392","article-title":"Retrospective Cohort Study Exploring Whether an Association Exists between Spatial Distribution of Cystoid Spaces in Cystoid Macular Oedema Secondary to Retinitis Pigmentosa and Response to Treatment with Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors","volume":"103","author":"Strong","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_154","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1065","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.2008.138560","article-title":"The Prevalence of Cystoid Macular Oedema in Retinitis Pigmentosa Patients Determined by Optical Coherence Tomography","volume":"92","author":"Hajali","year":"2008","journal-title":"Br. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e225","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/aws215","article-title":"Microcystic Macular Degeneration from Optic Neuropathy","volume":"135","author":"Abegg","year":"2012","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e226","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/aws216","article-title":"Microcystic Macular Oedema Confirmed, but Not Specific for Multiple Sclerosis","volume":"135","author":"Balk","year":"2012","journal-title":"Brain"},{"key":"ref_157","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2611","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bpj.2011.09.062","article-title":"M\u00fcller Glial Cell-Provided Cellular Light Guidance through the Vital Guinea-Pig Retina","volume":"101","author":"Agte","year":"2011","journal-title":"Biophys. J."},{"key":"ref_158","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1177\/13524585211028831","article-title":"Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography Indicates Subclinical Retinal Disease in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders","volume":"28","author":"Aly","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mult. Scler."},{"key":"ref_159","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1080\/14737175.2021.1982697","article-title":"Retinal Optical Coherence Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders and Mog-Antibody Associated Disorders: An Updated Review","volume":"21","author":"Lin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Neurother."},{"key":"ref_160","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2018.04.026","article-title":"Altered Macular Microvasculature in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders","volume":"192","author":"Kwapong","year":"2018","journal-title":"Am. J. Ophthalmol."},{"key":"ref_161","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1186\/2051-5960-2-48","article-title":"Neuromyelitis Optica Pathology in Rats following Intraperitoneal Injection of Nmo-Igg and Intracerebral Needle Injury","volume":"2","author":"Asavapanumas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol. Commun."},{"key":"ref_162","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"623","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbrc.2009.06.085","article-title":"Neuromyelitis Optica: Passive Transfer to Rats by Human Immunoglobulin","volume":"386","author":"Kinoshita","year":"2009","journal-title":"Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_163","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1186\/s40478-015-0259-2","article-title":"Severely Exacerbated Neuromyelitis Optica Rat Model with Extensive Astrocytopathy by High Affinity Anti-Aquaporin-4 Monoclonal Antibody","volume":"3","author":"Kurosawa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol. Commun."},{"key":"ref_164","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.21802","article-title":"Intrathecal Pathogenic Anti-Aquaporin-4 Antibodies in Early Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"66","author":"Bennett","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_165","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1111\/bpa.12098","article-title":"Experimental Models of Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"24","author":"Bradl","year":"2014","journal-title":"Brain Pathol."},{"key":"ref_166","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.21837","article-title":"Neuromyelitis Optica: Pathogenicity of Patient Immunoglobulin in Vivo","volume":"66","author":"Bradl","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ann. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_167","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1016\/j.expneurol.2014.12.015","article-title":"The Intrinsic Pathogenic Role of Autoantibodies to Aquaporin 4 Mediating Spinal Cord Disease in a Rat Passive-Transfer Model","volume":"265","author":"Geis","year":"2015","journal-title":"Exp. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_168","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jaut.2014.02.011","article-title":"Longitudinally Extensive Nmo Spinal Cord Pathology Produced by Passive Transfer of Nmo-Igg in Mice Lacking Complement Inhibitor Cd59","volume":"53","author":"Zhang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Autoimmun."},{"key":"ref_169","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2013.12.010","article-title":"Sera from Patients with Seropositive Neuromyelitis Optica Spectral Disorders Caused the Degeneration of Rodent Optic Nerve","volume":"119","author":"Matsumoto","year":"2014","journal-title":"Exp. Eye Res."},{"key":"ref_170","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"580951","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2020.580951","article-title":"Rodent Models of Optic Neuritis","volume":"11","author":"Redler","year":"2020","journal-title":"Front. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_171","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1007\/s00401-011-0824-0","article-title":"Pathogenic T Cell Responses against Aquaporin 4","volume":"122","author":"Pohl","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Neuropathol."},{"key":"ref_172","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.msard.2012.06.003","article-title":"Review of Animal Models of Neuromyelitis Optica","volume":"1","author":"Jones","year":"2012","journal-title":"Mult. Scler. Relat. Disord."},{"key":"ref_173","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ratelade, J., Bennett, J.L., and Verkman, A.S. (2011). Intravenous Neuromyelitis Optica Autoantibody in Mice Targets Aquaporin-4 in Peripheral Organs and Area Postrema. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0027412"},{"key":"ref_174","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2473","DOI":"10.1084\/jem.20081241","article-title":"Aquaporin-4-Binding Autoantibodies in Patients with Neuromyelitis Optica Impair Glutamate Transport by Down-Regulating Eaat2","volume":"205","author":"Hinson","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Exp. Med."},{"key":"ref_175","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"913","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.65.7.913","article-title":"Aquaporin-4 Antibodies in Neuromyelitis Optica and Longitudinally Extensive Transverse Myelitis","volume":"65","author":"Waters","year":"2008","journal-title":"Arch Neurol."},{"key":"ref_176","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"547","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2006.08.004","article-title":"Astrocytic Complexity Distinguishes the Human Brain","volume":"29","author":"Oberheim","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trends Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_177","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-071714-034120","article-title":"The Types of Retinal Ganglion Cells: Current Status and Implications for Neuronal Classification","volume":"38","author":"Sanes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Annu. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_178","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Traub, J., Hausser-Kinzel, S., and Weber, M.S. (2020). Differential Effects of Ms Therapeutics on B Cells-Implications for Their Use and Failure in Aqp4-Positive Nmosd Patients. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms21145021"},{"key":"ref_179","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"259","DOI":"10.1007\/s002620000120","article-title":"Comparison of in Vitro Antibody-Targeted Cytotoxicity Using Mouse, Rat and Human Effectors","volume":"49","author":"Bergman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Cancer Immunol. Immunother."}],"container-title":["International Journal of Molecular Sciences"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/23\/14\/7908\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T23:52:48Z","timestamp":1760140368000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/1422-0067\/23\/14\/7908"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,18]]},"references-count":179,"journal-issue":{"issue":"14","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,7]]}},"alternative-id":["ijms23147908"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ijms23147908","relation":{},"ISSN":["1422-0067"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1422-0067","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,18]]}}}